Introduction to Civil

Engineering
CEE 4101
Date: 27 Feb, 2017
Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering
What is Geotechnical Engineering???
- application of technology to solve problems in, on, or with earth materials

Geotechnical engineering is the science that explains mechanics of soil and rock
and its applications to the development of human kind. It includes, without
being limited to, the analysis, design and construction of foundations, slopes,
retaining structures, embankments, roadways, tunnels, levees, wharves,
landfills and other systems that are made of or are supported by soil or rock.
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering
Branches of Geotechnical
Engineering
1. Soil Mechanics
2. Rock Mechanics
3. Foundation Engineering
4. Geo-environmental Engineering
5. Geotechnical Earth Quake Engineering
6. Geologic Engineering
What it is Includes?

• it includes investigating existing subsurface conditions and

materials

• Determining their physical/ mechanical and chemical properties

that are relevant to the project considered and assessing the risks
posed by site conditions

• Designing earthworks and structure foundations and monitoring

site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction

• https://
www.slideshare.net/saicharanvasala9/geotechnical-engineering-c
ivil
How do Soil behave?

Virtually every structure is supported by the earth. Those that

are not either fly, float or fall over..

Concrete and Steel are text book materials;

Soil is not
Why do we need Geotechnical Engineer???
When do we need Geotechnical Engineer???
Does it necessary??
 Fields of Geotechnical Engineering

A geotechnical engineer determines and designs the type of foundations,

earthworks, and/or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made
structures to be built. Foundations are designed and constructed for structures of
various sizes such as high-rise buildings, bridges, medium to large commercial
buildings, and smaller structures where the soil conditions do not allow code-based
design.

Foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow and deep

foundations. Retaining structures include earth-filled dams and retaining walls.
Earthworks include embankments, tunnels, dikes, levees,channels, reservoirs,
deposition of hazardous waste and sanitary landfills, ground improvements etc.

Geotechnical engineering is also related to coastal and ocean engineering. Coastal

engineering can involve the design and construction of wharves, marinas, and jetties
. Ocean engineering can involve foundation and anchor systems for
offshore structures such as oil platforms.
Building Foundation
What is Foundation???
- Is the part of a structures that is usually placed below the surface of
the ground to transmit the load from the superstructure to the
underlying soil or rock.

Generally about 30 to 40% of the total construction cost is spent on the

foundation

What is the Purpose of Foundation

The main purpose of the foundation is to distribute the structural load

over a large bearing area without causing bearing capacity failure and
excessive settlement to obtain a level and hard strata or bed for building
operations to increase the stability of the structure as a whole.
Bearing Capacity of soil

It is defined as the maximum load per unit area which the soil
will resist safely without displacement

It can be found by loading the soil, noting the settlement and

by dividing the maximum load by the area on which the load
is applied
Types of Foundation

Foundation

Shallow Deep
Foundation Foundation

1. Spread 1. Pile
2. Combined 2. Cassion
3. Strip
4. Mat/ raft
Shallow Foundation
Shallow foundations are constructed where soil layer at shallow
depth (upto 1.5m) is able to support the structural loads. The
depth of shallow foundations are generally less than its width.
Spread/ Isolated Footing
Spread/ Isolated Footing
A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an
individual column. A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular
slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to
spread the load over a large area.

Grade beam
Strap Footing
A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a
structural strap or a lever. The strap connects the two footings such that they
behave as one unit. The strap is designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings
are so designed that their combined line of action passes through the resultant
of the total load. a strap footing is more economical than a combined footing
when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance between the
columns is large.
Strip Footing
Strip footings are commonly found in load-bearing masonry construction, and
act as a long strip that supports the weight of an entire wall. These are used
where the building loads are carried by entire walls rather than isolated
columns, such as in older buildings made of masonry.
A strip footing is also provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced
that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such a case, it is
more economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number of spread
footings in one line. A strip footing is also known as continuous footing.
Combined Footing
A combined footing supports minimum two columns. It is used when the two
columns are so close to each other that their individual footings would
overlap. A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so
close to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when
kept entirely within the property line. By combining it with that of an interior
column, the load is evenly distributed. A combined footing may be
rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.
Raft/ Mat Foundation
A mat or raft foundation is a large
slab supporting a number of columns
and walls under the entire structure
or a large part of the structure. A mat
is required when the allowable soil
pressure is low or where the columns
and walls are so close that individual
footings would overlap or nearly
touch each other.

Mat foundations are useful in

reducing the differential settlements
on non-homogeneous soils or where
there is a large variation in the loads
on individual columns.
Raft/ Mat Foundation

Raft Foundations, also called Mat Foundations, are most often

used when basements are to be constructed. In a raft, the entire
basement floor slab acts as the foundation; the weight of the
building is spread evenly over the entire footprint of the
building. It is called a raft because the building is like a vessel
that 'floats' in a sea of soil.

Mat Foundations are used where the soil is week, and therefore
building loads have to be spread over a large area, or where
columns are closely spaced, which means that if individual
footings were used, they would touch each other.
Raft/ Mat
Foundation
Pile Foundation
Pile Foundation
 Pile Foundation
• A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong material such as concrete that is
pushed into the ground so that structures can be supported on top of it.

• Pile foundations are used in the following situations:

•
When there is a layer of weak soil at the surface. This layer cannot support
the weight of the building, so the loads of the building have to bypass this
layer and be transferred to the layer of stronger soil or rock that is below the
weak layer.
• When a building has very heavy, concentrated loads, such as in a high rise
structure.
•
Pile foundations are capable of taking higher loads than spread footings.

There are two types of pile foundations, each of which works in its own way.
End Bearing Pile
In end bearing piles, the bottom end of
the pile rests on a layer of especially
strong soil or rock. The load of the
building is transferred through the pile
onto the strong layer. In a sense, this pile
acts like a column. The key principle is
that the bottom end rests on the surface
which is the intersection of a weak and
strong layer. The load therefore
bypasses the weak layer and is safely
transferred to the strong layer.
Friction Pile
Friction piles work on a different principle. The pile
transfers the load of the building to the soil across the
full height of the pile, by friction. In other words, the
entire surface of the pile, which is cylindrical in shape,
works to transfer the forces to the soil.

To visualize how this works, imagine you are pushing a

solid metal rod of say 4mm diameter into a tub of frozen
ice cream. Once you have pushed it in, it is strong
enough to support some load. The greater
the embedment depth in the ice cream, the more load it
can support. This is very similar to how a friction pile
works. In a friction pile, the amount of load a pile can
support is directly proportionate to its length.

In practice, however, each pile resists load by a

combination of end bearing and friction.
Caisson Foundation
A caisson foundation also called as pier foundation is a watertight retaining
structure used as a bridge pier, abutment in the construction of a concrete
dam, or for the repair of ships.
Caisson Foundation
Basic Bridge Parts
Abutment

The Structure upon which the ends of a Bridge rests is referred to as an

Abutment

It distributes the loads from Bridge Ends to the ground

The most common type of Abutment Structure is a Retaining Wall,

Although other types of Abutments are also possible and are used

A retaining wall is used to hold back an earth embankment or water and

to maintain a sudden change in elevation.
Pier
It is a vertical support for bridges. Provide intermediate support for the
adjacent ends of two bridge spans

The main support for a bridge, upon which the bridge superstructure rests

Constructed of masonry, steel, timber, or Concrete and founded on the

ground below river mud.
Embankment
an artificial bank raised above the immediately surrounding land to redirect or
prevent flooding by a river, lake or sea. Embankment (transportation), in
transportation, a raised bank to carry a road, railway, or canal across a low-
lying or wet area.
Box Culvert

Culverts are used primarily to allow passage of water across physical obstacles
A culvert is a structure that allows water to flow under a road, railroad, trail, or
similar obstruction from one side to the other side. Typically embedded so as to be
surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made from a pipe, reinforced concrete or
other material.
Engineering Materials

How should cement be stored?

Cement bags should not be stored in an enclosed area where the walls, roof and floor is
not completely weatherproof.
Cement bags must not be stored in wet surroundings and humid conditions.
Stack cement bags on wooden planks or concrete floor and do not stack the against the
wall.
Cement bags should be piled close together.
It is better to arrange the cement bags in a header and stretcher fashion.
Cement bags that were stored first must be used first.
Cement bags must not be piled up in the field at work site, instead they should be piled
up on a raised platform and covered with a sheet.
 Cement:
Cement: Cement is the main component of concrete. It's an economical, high-quality
construction material used in construction projects worldwide.

Cement is a fine mineral powder manufactured with very precise processes. Mixed with water,
this powder transforms into a paste that binds and hardens when submerged in water. Because
the composition and fineness of the powder may vary, cement has different properties
depending upon its combination.

There are various types of cement available in the market. Each cement type has specific
applications. These include residential construction, civil engineering structures, underground
work and the production of concrete for harsh environments or in highly corrosive conditions.

How should cement be stored?

• Cement bags should not be stored in an enclosed area where the walls, roof and floor is not
completely weatherproof.
• Cement bags must not be stored in wet surroundings and humid conditions.
• Stack cement bags on wooden planks or concrete floor and do not stack the against the wall.
• Cement bags should be piled close together.
• It is better to arrange the cement bags in a header and stretcher fashion.
• Cement bags that were stored first must be used first.
• Cement bags must not be piled up in the field at work site, instead they should be piled up on
a raised platform and covered with a sheet.
Types of Cement, their Composition and Uses
There are various types of cement used in construction works for various purposes.
Thus, it is important to understand properties of each types of cement and
their uses.

The following are the types of cement that are in practice:

1. Rapid Hardening Cement
2. Quick setting cement
3. Low Heat Cement
4. Sulphates resisting cement
5. Blast Furnace Slag Cement
6. High Alumina Cement
7. White Cement
8. Coloured cement
9. Pozzolanic Cement
10. Air Entraining Cement
11. Hydrographic cement
 Types of Cement, their Composition and Uses
Types of Cement Composition Purpose
Rapid Hardening Cement Increased Lime content Attains high strength in early days it is used in
concrete where form work are removed at an early
stage.
Quick setting cement Small percentage of aluminium sulphate as an accelerator Used in works is to be completed in very short period
and reducing percentage of Gypsum with fine grinding and concreting in static and running water
Low Heat Cement It is used in massive concrete construction like gravity
Manufactured by reducing tricalcium aluminate
dams
Sulphates resisting cement It is prepared by maintaining the percentage of tricalcium It is used in construction exposed to severe sulphate
aluminate below 6% which increases power against action by water and soil in places like canals linings,
sulphates culverts, retaining walls, siphons etc.,
Blast Furnace Slag Cement It is obtained by grinding the clinkers with about 60% It can used for works economic considerations is
slag and resembles more or less in properties of Portland predominant.
cement
High Alumina Cement It is used in works where concrete is subjected to high
It is obtained by melting mixture of bauxite and lime and temperatures, frost, and acidic action.
grinding with the clinker it is rapid hardening cement with
initial and final setting time of about 3.5 and 5 hours
respectively
White Cement It is prepared from raw materials free from Iron oxide. It is more costly and is used for architectural purposes
such as precast curtain wall and facing panels, terrazzo
surface etc.,
Coloured cement It is produced by mixing mineral pigments with ordinary They are widely used for decorative works in floors
cement.
Pozzolanic Cement It is prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker with It is used in marine structures, sewage works, sewage
Portland cement works and for laying concrete under water such as
bridges, piers, dams etc.,
Air Entraining Cement It is produced by adding indigenous air entraining agents This type of cement is specially suited to improve the
such as resins, glues, sodium salts of Sulphates etc during workability with smaller water cement ratio and to
the grinding of clinker. improve frost resistance of concrete.
Hydrographic cement It is prepared by mixing water repelling chemicals This cement has high workability and strength
 Concrete:
- a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate and a binder such as cement

Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregates and water. The properties of concrete
such as performance, strength, and durability varies with their types such as high strength,
prestressed, fresh, hard, Ready mix etc.

It is made by mixing: Cement, water, course fine aggregates and admixtures (if required). The
aim is to mix these materials in measured amounts to make concrete that is easy to: Transport,
place, compact, finish and which will set, and harden, to give a strong and durable product. The
amount of each material (ie cement, water and aggregates) affects the properties of hardened
concrete.
The properties of concrete such as performance, strength, and durability varies with their types
such as high strength, prestressed, fresh, hard, Ready mix etc.

Types of Concrete
Normal concrete
High-Strength Concrete
High Performance Concrete
Air Entrained Concrete
Light Weight Concrete
Self Compacting Concrete
Shotcrete
Pervious Concrete
Lime: Used for paint buildings and brick making

Concrete:

Brick: A small rectangular block typically made of fired or sun-dried clay,

used in building. 'Common building materials are concrete blocks and
bricks.