SEng4031 Advanced Database Systems

Introduction to SQL

Software Engineering Program

School of Computing and Informatics

P.by Abdiwak T. 1
Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

History
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• IBM Sequel language developed as part of System R
▶ Data Definition project at the IBM San Jose Research Laboratory
Domain Types
Create Table • Renamed Structured Query Language (SQL)
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
• ANSI and ISO standard SQL:
Select Clause • SQL-86
Where Clause
From Clause
• SQL-89
▶ More Basic Ops • SQL-92
Rename Operation
String Operations
• SQL:1999 (language name became Y2K compliant!)
Ordering • SQL:2003
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations • Commercial systems offer most, if not all, SQL-92

▶ Null Values features, plus varying feature sets from later
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB standards and special proprietary features.
Functions
• Not all examples here may work on your particular
system
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Data Definition Language

INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• The SQL data-definition language (DDL)
▶ Data Definition
Domain Types
allows the specification of information about
Create Table relations, including:
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
• The schema for each relation.
Select Clause • The domain of values associated with each
Where Clause
From Clause attribute.
▶ More Basic Ops • Integrity constraints
Rename Operation
String Operations • And as we will see later, also other information
Ordering
Duplicates
such as
▶ Set Operations
• The set of indices to be maintained for each relations.
▶ Null Values • Security and authorization information for each
▶ Aggregate relation.
▶ Modification of DB
Functions • The physical storage structure of each relation on disk.

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Domain Types in SQL

INDEX • char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified
▶ Overview of SQL
length n.
▶ Data Definition
Domain Types • varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with user-
Create Table specified maximum length n.
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
• int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-
Select Clause dependent).
Where Clause
• smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops

integer domain type).
Rename Operation • numeric(p,d). Fixed point number, with user-specified
String Operations precision of p digits, with d digits to the right of decimal point.
Ordering
Duplicates
(ex., numeric(3,1), allows 44.5 to be stores exactly, but not
▶ Set Operations
444.5 or 0.32)
▶ Null Values • real, double precision. Floating point and double-precision
▶ Aggregate floating point numbers, with machine-dependent precision.
▶ Modification of DB
Functions • float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified precision of
at least n digits.
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Create Table Construct

INDEX • An SQL relation is defined using the create table command:
▶ Overview of SQL
▶ Data Definition CREATE TABLE r (A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn,
Domain Types
Create Table
(integrity-constraint1),
Updates to Table ...,
▶ Query Structure (integrity-constraintk))
Select Clause
• r is the name of the relation
Where Clause
From Clause • each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of relation r
▶ More Basic Ops • Di is the data type of values in the domain of attribute Ai
Rename Operation
String Operations
Ordering • Example:
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
CREATE TABLE instructor (
▶ Null Values ID char(5),
▶ Aggregate name varchar(20),
▶ Modification of DB
Functions dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Integrity Constraints
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• not null
▶ Data Definition
Domain Types
• primary key (A1, ..., An )
Create Table
Updates to Table • foreign key (Am, ..., An ) references r
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause • Example:
Where Clause
From Clause
• CREATE TABLE instructor (
▶ More Basic Ops ID char(5),
Rename Operation Name varchar(20) not null,
String Operations dept_name varchar(20),
Ordering
Salary numeric(8,2),
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
PRIMARY KEY (ID),
▶ Null Values FOREIGN KEY (dept_name) REFERENCES
▶ Aggregate department(dept_name);
▶ Modification of DB
Functions • primary key declaration on an attribute
automatically ensures not null
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

More Relation Definitions

INDEX • CREATE TABLE student (
▶ Overview of SQL
▶ Data Definition
ID varchar(5),
Domain Types Name varchar(20) not null,
Create Table dept_name varchar(20),
Updates to Table tot_cred numeric(3,0),
▶ Query Structure PRIMARY KEY (ID),
Select Clause
FOREIGN KEY (dept_name) REFERENCES department);
Where Clause
From Clause
• CREATE TABLE takes (
▶ More Basic Ops ID varchar(5),
Rename Operation course_id varchar(8),
String Operations sec_id varchar(8),
Ordering Semester varchar(6),
Duplicates
Year numeric(4,0),
▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
Grade varchar(2),
▶ Aggregate
PRIMARY KEY (ID, course_id, sec_id, semester, year) ,
▶ Modification of DB FOREIGN KEY (ID) REFERENCES student(ID),
Functions
FOREIGN KEY (course_id, sec_id, semester, year) REFERENCES
section (course_id, sec_id, semester, year) );
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

More Relation Definitions …

INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• CREATE TABLE course (
▶ Data Definition
course_id varchar(8),
Domain Types
Create Table Title varchar(50),
dept_name varchar(20),
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
Select Clause Credits numeric(2,0),
Where Clause
From Clause PRIMARY KEY (course_id),
▶ More Basic Ops
FOREIGN KEY (dept_name) references
department(dept_name);
Rename Operation
String Operations
Ordering
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Updates to Tables
INDEX • Insert
▶ Overview of SQL
• INSERT INTO instructor
▶ Data Definition
Domain Types VALUES (‘10211’, ’Smith’, ’Biology’, 66000);
Create Table
• Delete
Updates to Table
• Remove all tuples from the student relation
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
• DELETE FROM student
Where Clause • Drop Table
From Clause
• DROP TABLE r
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation • Alter
String Operations • ALTER TABLE r ADD A D
Ordering
• where A is the name of the attribute to be added to relation r and D
Duplicates
is the domain of A.
▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
• All exiting tuples in the relation are assigned null as the value for the
▶ Aggregate
new attribute.
▶ Modification of DB • ALTER TABLE r DROP A
Functions
• where A is the name of an attribute of relation r
• Dropping of attributes not supported by many databases.
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Basic Query Structure

INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• A typical SQL query has the form:
▶ Data Definition
Domain Types
Create Table SELECT A1, A2, ..., An
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure FROM r1, r2, ..., rm

Select Clause
Where Clause
WHERE P
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops

Rename Operation • Ai represents an attribute
String Operations
Ordering
• Ri represents a relation
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
• P is a predicate.
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
• The result of an SQL query is a relation.
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

The SELECT Clause

INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• The SELECT clause lists the attributes desired
▶ Data Definition in the result of a query
Domain Types
Create Table • corresponds to the projection operation of the
Updates to Table
relational algebra
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
• Example: find the names of all instructors:
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops

SELECT name
Rename Operation
String Operations
FROM instructor
Ordering
Duplicates
• NOTE: SQL names are case insensitive (i.e.,
▶ Set Operations you may use upper- or lower-case letters.)
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate • E.g., Name ≡ NAME ≡ name
▶ Modification of DB
Functions • Some people use upper case wherever we use
bold font.
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

The SELECT Clause …

INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in
▶ Data Definition query results.
Domain Types
Create Table • To force the elimination of duplicates, insert
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure the keyword distinct after select.

Select Clause
Where Clause • Find the department names of all instructors,
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops

and remove duplicates
Rename Operation
String Operations
SELECT DISTINCT dept_name
Ordering FROM instructor
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations • The keyword all specifies that duplicates should

▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
not be removed.
▶ Modification of DB
Functions SELECT ALL dept_name
FROM instructor
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

The SELECT Clause …

INDEX • An asterisk in the select clause denotes “all
▶ Overview of SQL
▶ Data Definition attributes”
SELECT *
Domain Types
Create Table
Updates to Table FROM instructor
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause • An attribute can be a literal with no from clause
SELECT ‘437’
Where Clause
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops • Results is a table with one column and a single row with
Rename Operation value “437”
String Operations
Ordering
• Can give the column a name using:
Duplicates SELECT ‘437’ as FOO
▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
• An attribute can be a literal with from clause
▶ Aggregate • SELECT ‘A’
▶ Modification of DB FROM instructor
Functions
• Result is a table with one column and N rows (number of
tuples in the instructors table) each row with value “A”
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

The SELECT Clause …

INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• The SELECT clause can contain arithmetic
▶ Data Definition expressions involving the operation, +, –, ,
and /, and operating on constants or
Domain Types
Create Table
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
attributes of tuples.
Select Clause
Where Clause
• The query:
From Clause SELECT ID, name, salary/12 FROM instructor
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation
would return a relation that is the same as the
String Operations instructor relation, except that the value of the
Ordering
Duplicates
attribute salary is divided by 12.
▶ Set Operations • Can rename “salary/12” using the as clause:
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate SELECT ID, name, salary/12 AS monthly_salary
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

The WHERE Clause

INDEX • The WHERE clause specifies conditions that the result
▶ Overview of SQL
▶ Data Definition
must satisfy
Domain Types • Corresponds to the selection predicate of the relational algebra.
Create Table
Updates to Table
• To find all instructors in Comp. Sci. dept
▶ Query Structure SELECT name
Select Clause
Where Clause
FROM instructor
From Clause WHERE dept_name = ‘Comp. Sci.'
▶ More Basic Ops
• Comparison results can be combined using the logical
Rename Operation
String Operations
connectives and, or, and not
Ordering • To find all instructors in Comp. Sci. dept with salary > 80000
Duplicates
SELECT name
▶ Set Operations FROM instructor
▶ Null Values
WHERE dept_name = ‘Comp. Sci.' and salary > 80000
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB • Comparisons can be applied to results of arithmetic
Functions
expressions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

The FROM Clause

INDEX • The FROM clause lists the relations involved in the
▶ Overview of SQL
▶ Data Definition query
Domain Types • Corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the
Create Table
Updates to Table
relational algebra.
▶ Query Structure • Find the Cartesian product instructor X teaches
Select Clause
Where Clause SELECT 
From Clause
FROM instructor, teaches
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation
• generates every possible instructor – teaches pair, with all
String Operations attributes from both relations.
Ordering
• For common attributes (e.g., ID), the attributes in the
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
resulting table are renamed using the relation name (e.g.,
▶ Null Values
instructor.ID)
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
• Cartesian product not very useful directly, but useful
Functions combined with where-clause condition (selection
operation in relational algebra).
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Cartesian Product teaches

INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
Instructor Teaches
▶ Data Definition
Domain Types
Create Table
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops

Rename Operation
String Operations
Ordering
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Examples
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Find the names of all instructors who have
▶ Data Definition taught some course and the course_id
Domain Types
Create Table SELECT name, course_id
Updates to Table
FROM instructor , teaches
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
WHERE instructor.ID = teaches.ID
Where Clause
From Clause
• Find the names of all instructors in the Art
▶ More Basic Ops department who have taught some course
and the course_id
Rename Operation
String Operations
Ordering
Duplicates
SELECT name, course_id
▶ Set Operations FROM instructor , teaches
▶ Null Values WHERE instructor.ID = teaches.ID AND instructor.
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
dept_name = ‘Art’
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

The Rename Operation

INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• The SQL allows renaming relations and
▶ Data Definition attributes using the as clause:
Domain Types
Create Table • old-name as new-name
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure • Find the names of all instructors who have a

Select Clause
Where Clause
higher salary than some instructor in ‘Comp.
From Clause Sci’.
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation • SELECT DISTINCT T.name
FROM instructor AS T, instructor AS S
String Operations
Ordering
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
where T.salary > S.salary AND S.dept_name =
▶ Null Values ‘Comp. Sci.’
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
Functions
• Keyword AS is optional and may be omitted
instructor AS T ≡ instructor T
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Cartesian Product Example

INDEX • Relation emp-super
▶ Overview of SQL
▶ Data Definition
Domain Types
• Cartesian Product Example
Create Table
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops

Rename Operation
String Operations • Find the supervisor of “Bob”
Ordering
Duplicates • Find the supervisor of the supervisor of “Bob”
▶ Set Operations
• SELECT f.supervisor FROM employee e, employee f WHERE
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
e.person = 'Bob' And e.supervisor = f.person
▶ Modification of DB
Functions • Find ALL the supervisors (direct and indirect) of
“Bob
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

String Operations
INDEX • SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons
▶ Overview of SQL
▶ Data Definition
on character strings. The operator like uses patterns
Domain Types that are described using two special characters:
Create Table
Updates to Table
• percent ( % ). The % character matches any substring.
▶ Query Structure
• underscore ( _ ). The _ character matches any character.
Select Clause
Where Clause
• Find the names of all instructors whose name includes
From Clause the substring “dar”.
▶ More Basic Ops
SELECT name
Rename Operation
String Operations
FROM instructor
Ordering WHERE name like '%dar%'
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations • Match the string “100%”

▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
like ‘100 \%' escape '\'
▶ Modification of DB
Functions
in that above we use backslash (\) as the escape
character.
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

String Operations …
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Patterns are case sensitive.
▶ Data Definition
Domain Types
• Pattern matching examples:
Create Table • ‘Intro%’ matches any string beginning with “Intro”.
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
• ‘%Comp%’ matches any string containing “Comp” as a
Select Clause
substring.
Where Clause • ‘_ _ _’ matches any string of exactly three characters.
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops

• ‘_ _ _ %’ matches any string of at least three
Rename Operation characters.
String Operations
Ordering
Duplicates
• SQL supports a variety of string operations such as
▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values • concatenation (using “||”)
▶ Aggregate • converting from upper to lower case (and vice versa)
▶ Modification of DB
Functions • finding string length, extracting substrings, etc.

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Ordering the Display of Tuples

INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• List in alphabetic order the names of all
▶ Data Definition instructors
Domain Types
Create Table SELECT DISTINCT name
Updates to Table
FROM instructor
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause ORDER BY name
Where Clause
From Clause • We may specify desc for descending order or
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation
asc for ascending order, for each attribute;
String Operations ascending order is the default.
Ordering
Duplicates • Example: ORDER BY name DESC
▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values • Can sort on multiple attributes
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
• Example: ORDER BY dept_name, name
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Where Clause Predicates

INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• SQL includes a between comparison operator
▶ Data Definition
Domain Types
• Example: Find the names of all instructors
Create Table
Updates to Table
with salary between $90,000 and $100,000
▶ Query Structure (that is,  $90,000 and  $100,000)
Select Clause
Where Clause
• SELECT name
From Clause FROM instructor
▶ More Basic Ops
WHERE salary BETWEEN 90000 AND 100000
Rename Operation
String Operations
Ordering
• Tuple comparison
Duplicates • SELECT name, course_id
▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
FROM instructor, teaches
▶ Aggregate WHERE (instructor.ID, dept_name) = (teaches.ID,
▶ Modification of DB
Functions
’Biology’);

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Duplicates
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• In relations with duplicates, SQL can define how
▶ Data Definition many copies of tuples appear in the result.
Domain Types
Create Table • Multiset versions of some of the relational algebra
operators – given multiset relations r1 and r2:
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
Select Clause 1.  (r1): If there are c1 copies of tuple t1 in r1, and t1
Where Clause
From Clause satisfies selections ,, then there are c1 copies of t1 in
▶ More Basic Ops  (r1).
Rename Operation
String Operations 2. A (r ): For each copy of tuple t1 in r1, there is a copy of
Ordering tuple A (t1) in A (r1) where A (t1) denotes the
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
projection of the single tuple t1.
▶ Null Values
3. r1 x r2: If there are c1 copies of tuple t1 in r1 and c2
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB copies of tuple t2 in r2, there are c1 x c2 copies of the
Functions
tuple t1. t2 in r1 x r2

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Duplicates
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Example: Suppose multiset relations r1 (A, B) and r2 (C)
▶ Data Definition are as follows:
Domain Types
Create Table r1 = {(1, a) (2,a)} r2 = {(2), (3), (3)}
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure • Then B(r1) would be {(a), (a)}, while B(r1) x r2 would
Select Clause
Where Clause
be
From Clause {(a,2), (a,2), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3)}
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation • SQL duplicate semantics:
String Operations
Ordering select A1,, A2, ..., An
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
from r1, r2, ..., rm
▶ Null Values where P
 A1to , An ( P ( r1  r2version
   rmof))the expression:
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB is equivalent the
, A2 , multiset
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Set Operations
INDEX • Find courses that ran in Fall 2009 or in Spring 2010
▶ Overview of SQL
▶ Data Definition
• (SELECT course_id FROM section WHERE sem = ‘Fall’ AND year =
Domain Types
2009)
Create Table
UNION
Updates to Table
(SELECT course_id FROM section WHERE sem = ‘Spring’ AND year =
2010)
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause • Find courses that ran in Fall 2009 and in Spring 2010
Where Clause
• (SELECT course_id FROM section WHERE sem = ‘Fall’ AND year =
From Clause
2009)
▶ More Basic Ops INTERSECT
Rename Operation (SELECT course_id FROM section WHERE sem = ‘Spring’ AND year =
String Operations 2010)
Ordering
Duplicates • Find courses that ran in Fall 2009 but not in Spring 2010
▶ Set Operations • (SELECT course_id FROM section WHERE sem = ‘Fall’ AND year =
▶ Null Values 2009)
▶ Aggregate EXCEPT
▶ Modification of DB (SELECT course_id FROM section WHERE sem = ‘Spring’ AND year =
Functions 2010)

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Set Operations …
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Find the salaries of all instructors that are less
▶ Data Definition than the largest salary.
Domain Types
Create Table
• SELECT DISTINCT T.salary
Updates to Table FROM instructor AS T, instructor AS S
▶ Query Structure where T.salary < S.salary
Select Clause
Where Clause
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops

• Find all the salaries of all instructors
Rename Operation • SELECT DISTINCT salary
String Operations
Ordering
FROM instructor
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values • Find the largest salary of all instructors.
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
• (SELECT “second query” )
Functions EXCEPT
(SELECT “first query”)
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Set Operations (Cont.)

INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Set operations union, intersect, and except
▶ Data Definition • Each of the above operations automatically
eliminates duplicates
Domain Types
Create Table

• To retain all duplicates use the corresponding

Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
multiset versions union all, intersect all and
From Clause except all.
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation • Suppose a tuple occurs m times in r and n
String Operations
Ordering
times in s, then, it occurs:
Duplicates
• m + n times in r union all s
▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values • min(m,n) times in r intersect all s
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB • max(0, m – n) times in r except all s
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

NULL Values
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• It is possible for tuples to have a null value,
▶ Data Definition denoted by NULL, for some of their attributes
Domain Types
Create Table • NULL signifies an unknown value or that a value
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
does not exist.
Select Clause
Where Clause
• The result of any arithmetic expression involving
From Clause NULL is NULL
▶ More Basic Ops
• Example: 5 + NULL returns NULL
Rename Operation
String Operations • The predicate IS NULL can be used to check for
null values.
Ordering
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations • Example: Find all instructors whose salary is null.

▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate SELECT name
▶ Modification of DB
Functions FROM instructor
WHERE salary IS NULL
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Three Valued Logic

INDEX • Three values – true, false, unknown
▶ Overview of SQL
▶ Data Definition • Any comparison with null returns unknown
Domain Types
Create Table
• Example: 5 < null or null <> null or null = null
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
• Three-valued logic using the value unknown:
Select Clause • OR: (unknown or true) = true,
Where Clause (unknown or false) = unknown
From Clause
(unknown or unknown) = unknown
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation
• AND: (true and unknown) = unknown,
String Operations (false and unknown) = false,
Ordering (unknown and unknown) = unknown
Duplicates
• NOT: (not unknown) = unknown
▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
• “P is unknown” evaluates to true if predicate P evaluates
▶ Aggregate to unknown
▶ Modification of DB
Functions • Result of where clause predicate is treated as false if
it evaluates to unknown
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Practice Exercises
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Use the University Database and Write SQL
▶ Data Definition Queries for the following
Domain Types
Create Table • Find the IDs of all students who were taught by an
Updates to Table
instructor named
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
Einstein; make sure there are no duplicates in the
Where Clause result.
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops

• Find all instructors earning the highest salary
Rename Operation (there may be more
String Operations
than one with the same salary)
Ordering
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

More Practice
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Use the Bank Database from the Previous
▶ Data Definition Lesson
Domain Types
Create Table • Find all customers of the bank who have an
Updates to Table
account but not a loan.
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause • Find the names of all customers who live on the
Where Clause
same street and in the same city as “Smith”.
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops • Find the names of all branches with customers
Rename Operation who have an account
String Operations
Ordering
in the bank and who live in “Harrison”.
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Aggregate Functions
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• These functions operate on the multiset of
▶ Data Definition values of a column of a relation, and return a
value
Domain Types
Create Table
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
avg: average value
Select Clause min: minimum value
Where Clause
From Clause max: maximum value
▶ More Basic Ops
sum: sum of values
Rename Operation
String Operations count: number of values
Ordering
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Aggregate Functions …
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Find the average salary of instructors in the
▶ Data Definition Computer Science department
Domain Types
Create Table • SELECT AVG (salary)
Updates to Table FROM instructor
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
WHERE dept_name= ’Comp. Sci.’;
Where Clause
From Clause
• Find the total number of instructors who teach
▶ More Basic Ops a course in the Spring 2010 semester
Rename Operation
String Operations
• SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT ID)
Ordering FROM teaches
Duplicates
WHERE semester = ’Spring’ AND year = 2010;
▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values • Find the number of tuples in the course relation
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB • SELECT COUNT (*)
Functions
FROM course;

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Group By Clause
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Find the average salary of instructors in each
▶ Data Definition department
Domain Types
Create Table • SELECT dept_name, AVG (salary) AS avg_salary
Updates to Table
FROM instructor
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
GROUP BY dept_name;
Where Clause
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops

Rename Operation
String Operations
Ordering
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Having Clause
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Find the names and average salaries of all
▶ Data Definition departments whose average salary is greater
than 42000
Domain Types
Create Table
Updates to Table SELECT dept_name, AVG (salary)
▶ Query Structure FROM instructor
Select Clause
GROUP BY dept_name
Where Clause
From Clause
HAVING AVG (salary) > 42000;
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation
• Note: predicates in the having clause are
String Operations applied after the formation of groups whereas
Ordering
Duplicates
predicates in the where clause are applied
▶ Set Operations before forming groups
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Null Values and Aggregates

INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Total all salaries
▶ Data Definition SELECT SUM (salary )
Domain Types
FROM instructor
Create Table
Updates to Table • Above statement ignores null amounts
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
• Result is null if there is no non-null amount
Where Clause
From Clause
• All aggregate operations except COUNT(*)
▶ More Basic Ops ignore tuples with null values on the
Rename Operation
String Operations
aggregated attributes
• What if collection has only null values?
Ordering
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
• count returns 0
▶ Aggregate • all other aggregates return null
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Modification of Database
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Deletion of tuples from a given relation.
▶ Data Definition
Domain Types
• Insertion of new tuples into a given relation
Create Table
Updates to Table • Updating of values in some tuples in a given
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
relation
Where Clause
From Clause

▶ More Basic Ops

Rename Operation
String Operations
Ordering
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Deletion
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Delete all instructors
▶ Data Definition DELETE FROM instructor
Domain Types
Create Table
Updates to Table
• Delete all instructors from the Finance
▶ Query Structure department
Select Clause
Where Clause
DELETE FROM instructor
From Clause WHERE dept_name= ’Finance’;
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation
• Delete all tuples in the instructor relation for
String Operations those instructors associated with a department
located in the Watson building.
Ordering
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
DELETE FROM instructor
▶ Aggregate WHERE dept name IN (SELECT dept name
▶ Modification of DB
Functions FROM department
WHERE building = ’Watson’);
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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Deletion
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Delete all instructors whose salary is less than
▶ Data Definition the average salary of instructors
Domain Types
Create Table DELETE FROM instructor
WHERE salary < (SELECT AVG (salary)
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
Select Clause FROM instructor);
Where Clause
From Clause • Problem: as we delete tuples from deposit,
the average salary changes
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation

• Solution used in SQL:

String Operations
Ordering

1. First, compute AVG (salary) and find all tuples to

Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values delete
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
2. Next, delete all tuples found above (without re-
Functions
computing AVG or retesting the tuples)

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Insertion
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Add a new tuple to course
▶ Data Definition
INSERT INTO course
Domain Types
Create Table VALUES (’CS-437’, ’Database Systems’, ’Comp. Sci.’,
Updates to Table
4);
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
Where Clause
• or equivalently
From Clause INSERT INTO course (course_id, title, dept_name,
▶ More Basic Ops
credits) VALUES (’CS-437’, ’Database Systems’,
’Comp. Sci.’, 4);
Rename Operation
String Operations

• Add a new tuple to student with tot_creds set

Ordering
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
to null
▶ Aggregate INSERT INTO student VALUES (’3003’, ’Green’,
▶ Modification of DB
Functions ’Finance’, null);

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Insertion
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Add all instructors to the student relation
▶ Data Definition with tot_creds set to 0
Domain Types
Create Table INSERT INTO student
SELECT ID, name, dept_name, 0
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
Select Clause FROM instructor
Where Clause
From Clause • The SELECT FROM WHERE statement is
evaluated fully before any of its results are
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation
String Operations
Ordering
inserted into the relation.
Duplicates

▶ Set Operations
Otherwise queries like
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
INSERT INTO table1 SELECT * FROM table1
would cause problem
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Updates
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
• Increase salaries of instructors whose salary is
▶ Data Definition over $100,000 by 3%, and all others by a 5%
Domain Types
Create Table • Write two UPDATE statements:
UPDATE instructor
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
Select Clause SET salary = salary * 1.03WHERE salary > 100000
Where Clause
From Clause UPDATE instructor
▶ More Basic Ops
SET salary = salary * 1.05
Rename Operation
String Operations WHERE salary <= 100000;
Ordering
Duplicates • The order is important
▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

Practice Problems
INDEX
▶ Overview of SQL
SELECT course id, semester, year, sec id, AVG
▶ Data Definition (tot cred)
FROM takes NATURAL JOIN student
Domain Types
Create Table
Updates to Table

▶ Query Structure
WHERE year = 2009
Select Clause GROUP BY course id, semester, year, sec id
Where Clause
From Clause
HAVING COUNT (ID) >= 2;
▶ More Basic Ops
Rename Operation
String Operations
Ordering
Explain why joining section as well in the from
Duplicates clause would not change
▶ Set Operations
▶ Null Values
the result.
▶ Aggregate
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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Course SEng4031: Advanced Database Systems Lesson Introduction to SQL

More Practice
INDEX • Using University Database Write queries for the following
▶ Overview of SQL
▶ Data Definition • Create a new course “SE-001”, titled “Weekly Seminar”, with 0
Domain Types credits.
Create Table • Create a section of this course in Autumn 2022, with sec id of
Updates to Table
1.
▶ Query Structure
Select Clause
• Enroll every student in the Soft.Engineering department in the
Where Clause above section.
From Clause • Delete enrolments in the above section where the student’s
▶ More Basic Ops name is Ebtihal.
Rename Operation
• Delete the course CS-001. What will happen if you run this
String Operations
Ordering
delete statement without first deleting offerings (sections) of
Duplicates this course.
▶ Set Operations • Delete all takes tuples corresponding to any section of any
▶ Null Values course with the word “database” as a part of the title; ignore
▶ Aggregate case when matching the word with the title.
▶ Modification of DB
Functions

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