INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Prepared
by

Shahla Arshad

K.M.U. Institute Of Nursing Sciences

 OBJECTIVES

Define Psychology.

Identify different perspectives in Psychology.

Identify various fields of Psychology

Demonstrate understanding and its applications to Nursing

 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology:
The scientific study of mind and its functions.

Developmental psychology:
Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology
that studies physical, cognitive, and social change of
humans throughout their life cycle.
MAJOR PERSPECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY

 Psychoanalytic
 Behaviorism
 Humanism
 Biological/Biomedical
 Constructivism
 Cognitivism
 PSYCHOANALYSIS
 The psychodynamic perspective originated with the work
of Sigmund Freud. This perspective emphasizes the role of
the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and
interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior and
to treat people suffering from mental illnesses.

 Sigmund Freud was born in vienna in 1856.he graduated

from the university of vienna at the age of 26 and obtained
his medical degree, later he become lecturer at the
university. Freud spent much of his life working on
psychoanalysis. on the basis of his work he viewed as the
father of psychology. He died in 1939 ( cancer of the jaw) .
 TYPES OF THERAPY

• Psychoanalysis(4-5 session per week, free association )

• Psychoanalytic(1-3 session per week, talk therapy)

• Psychodynamic(phobia, anxiety problem, transference )

Psychoanalytic Methods of Therapy
1-Maintaining the analytic frame work
2-Free association(Hypnosis)(Catharsis)
3-Interpertation
4-Dream analysis
 Manifest content- actual events in dream.
 Latent content – hidden message in dream.
5-Analysis of resistance
6-Analysis of transference
7-Freudian Slips
8-Rorschach ink blots
 Defense Mechanism
 Fraud’s Developmental stages
 Freud's Theories

Psychoanalytic theory includes:

 Structural Theory(Id , Ego , Superego)

 Libido (Drive) Theory

 Topographical Theory of mind

(Conscious, preconscious , unconscious)

 Theory of Narcissism
 Id = unconscious = pleasure principle
-Primary process thinking: wish fulfillment
-I want it now! Instant gratification
-Part of the iceberg that is submerged underwater
 Ego = conscious = reality principle
- What are the real-world consequences of my actions?
- secondary process thinking: reality testing
- part of the iceberg that is above water and aware of reality
 Superego = preconscious = morality principle
-What is the proper way to behave? Parents/Society
-sense of right and wrong
-Part of the iceberg that is just under the water but can
sometimes surface
 Freud's Writing

 Studies on Hysteria (1895)

 The Interpretation of Dreams (1900)
 The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901)
 Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious (1905)
 Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905)
 Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920)
 Conclusions

• There have been many revisions and additions to

psychoanalytic theories since Freud's time.
• Freud's theories explains the concepts of love, hate,
childhood, family relations, civilization, sexuality,
fantasy, conflicting emotions etc.
Behaviorism
 BEHAVIORISM
Behaviorism is a school of psychology, focus on
observable behavior. what one can do externally to
bring about behavior changes, it does not explain how
the mind works.
Confined to observable and measurable behavior

 Classical Conditioning – (Pavlov)(Watson)

 Operant Conditioning –(Skinner)

 PAVLOV AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

 The father of modern learning theory is Ivan Petrovich

Pavlov(1849-1936).Pavlov was born in Ryazan,Russia,the
son of poor village priest. in 1904 he won the Nobel prize
for his work on digestive system. when Pavlov was 50 years
old he began his famous work on conditioned reflexes.
According to Pavlov “behavior can be change through
conditioning with external or environmental conditions or
stimuli” . this new interest came about through an accidental
discovery about the nature of salivation in dogs, he began
studying the conditioning process.
 Classical conditioning paradigm.
 Experiment on dog with light.(1928)
 Unconditioned stimulus(US)
 Unconditioned Reflex(UR)
 Conditioned stimulus(CS)
 Conditioned Reflex(CR)
 Extinction
 Spontaneous Recovery
 Discrimination
 Higher-order conditioning
 Second order conditioning
 Third order conditioning
 Pavlov basic idea was not new. in the 17th century ,Lock
had proposed that knowledge is based on association, but
Pavlov uncovered several principles of association.
 The man most responsible for making pavlovian principals
a part of the psychological mainstream was John
B.Watson(1878-1958)he was environmentalist and
behaviorist.
 In1916 Watson began research on young children becoming
the first major psychologist to apply principal of learning to
the problems of development .
 Study of Emotions.
 Fear(sudden noise ,loss of support)
 Rage(response to restriction of body movement
Conditioning Fear In Little Albert.
 MARY COVER JONES
Mary Cover Jones
(September 1, 1897 – July 22, 1987)
was born in Johnstown, Pennsylvania.
She has become known as
“The mother of behavior therapy"
because of her early work on the
unconditioning of the fear reaction in
infants. Her study of the three-year-old
named Peter, in which she tested a number
of procedures to remove his fear of a white
Rabbit.
Deconditioning fear in peter
 JOSEPH WOLPE

Systematic desensitization is a type of behavioral

therapy based on the principle of classical
conditioning. It was developed by Wolpe during the
1950s. This therapy aims to remove the fear
response of a Phobia. There are three phases to the
treatment.
FIRST: Taught a deep muscle relaxation technique.
SECOND: Creates a fear hierarchy.
THIRD: Work on hierarchy.
Operant Conditioning
• An American psychologist B.F Skinner(1904-
1990) was also a behaviorist &
environmentalist . He also wrote stories and
poetry. he criticize Pavlov and Watson

• According to Skinner People learn their

behavior from their history or past experience
particularly those are repeated or reinforced
SKINNER: OPERANT CONDITIONING

Stimulus Response Reinforcement

 REINFORCEMENT
A Consequence That Strengthens a Behavior
Positive
giving something good - increases desired
behaviour
Negative
taking away something bad - increases desired
behaviour
Punishment
applying something bad - reduces
undesired behaviour
Humanism
HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
• Humanism came about in the 1960s in
reaction to psychoanalysis and
behaviorism. Humanistic psychology
was instead focused on each
individual’s potential and stressed the
importance of growth and self-
actualization. The fundamental belief of
humanistic psychology was that people
are innately good.
 HUMANISM
• Abraham Maslow said we have a hierarchy of needs
• Carl Rogers revolutionized talk therapy. His therapy is
client-centered, where the client has all the answers instead
of the therapist. Therapists treat the client with
unconditional positive regard (no judgments). Group
therapy comes from Humanism.
 COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

 It is the study of how people perceive, remember, think,

speak, and solve problems.
 Cognitive therapy is about changing the maladaptive
thoughts of a person.

Alan Baddeley studied memory. He’s famous for his

model for working memory .
Jean Piaget studied cognitive development in children.
 Baddeley's model of working memory

Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed a model of working

memory in 1974, in an attempt to present a more accurate model of
primary memory (often referred to as short-term memory). Working
memory splits primary memory into multiple components. Model
was composed of three main components:
central executive
which acts as supervisory system and controls
the flow of information
1-phonological loop
The phonological loop stores verbal content.
2-visuo-spatial sketchpad provide to visuo-spatial
data.
In 2000 Baddeley added a third part to his model is
3- Episodic buffer.
 COGNITIVE THERAPY
• Cognitive therapy is about changing the maladaptive (bad)
thoughts. Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck and William Glasser
are famous for reality therapy. cognitive therapy also
“educates” the client, teaches him/her for proper
behaviors/thoughts.
 BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

 This perspective is among

the most respected right
now. They focus on our
brain, nervous system,
neurotransmitters and
hormones to explain our
behaviors.
 CONSTRUCTIVISM
 Grew out of and in response to
Cognitivism, framed around
metacognition. Knowledge is
actively constructed .
 Learning is an active, constructive
process
 Learner constructs information
 New information linked to prior
knowledge
 Learner is not a blank slate
 Originators and important
contributors include Vygotsky,
Piaget, Dewey, Vico, Rorty, and
The 5 E's
The 5 E's is an instructional model based on the constructivist
approach to learning, which says that learners build or construct new
ideas on top of their old ideas. The 5 E's can be used with students of
all ages, including adults. Each of the 5 E's describes a phase of
learning, and each phase begins with the letter "E":
 Engage
 Explore
 Explain
 Elaborate
 Evaluate
Engage: During this phase make connections between past and present
learning experiences. Students should become mentally engaged in
the concept, process, or skill to be learned
Explore: During this phase, students actively explore their
environment or manipulate materials
Explain: In this phase they have opportunities to verbalize their
conceptual understanding or to demonstrate new skills or behaviors.
This phase also provides opportunities for teachers to introduce
formal terms, definitions, and explanations for concepts, processes,
skills, or behaviors.
Elaborate: This phase of the 5 E's extends students' conceptual
understanding and allows them to practice skills and behaviors.
Through new experiences, the learners develop deeper and broader
understanding of major concepts, obtain more information about
areas of interest, and refine their skills
Evaluate: In this stage encourage learners to assess their understanding
and abilities and lets teachers evaluate students' understanding of
key concepts and skill development.
 VARIOUS FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Abnormal Psychology
Is a field of psychology that deals with psychopathology and abnormal
behavior.
Biopsychology
This area of psychology is focused on how the brain, neurons, and nervous
system influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the
assessment and treatment of mental illness, abnormal behavior, and
psychiatric problems.
Cognitive Psychology
This area of psychology is centered on the science of how people think,
learn, and remember. Psychologists who work in this field often study things
such as perception, language, learning, memory, attention, decision-making,
and problem-solving.
Comparative Psychology
This field of psychology is centered on the study of animal behavior.
Counseling Psychology
It is centered on treating clients experiencing mental distress and a
wide variety of psychological symptoms.
Developmental Psychology
Psychologists who study development are interested in how people
change and grow throughout the entire lifespan. They often study
things such as physical growth, intellectual development, emotional
changes, social growth, and perceptual changes that occur through
life.
Educational Psychology
Psychologists who work in this field are focused on understanding
how people learn.
Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychology is an area of psychology that utilizes scientific
methods to research the mind and behavior.
Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychology is defined as the junction of psychology and the law,
but forensic psychologists can perform many roles so this definition can
vary.
Health Psychology
Health psychologists are interested in improving health across a wide
variety of domains. These professionals not only promote healthy
behaviors, they also work on the prevention and treatment of illness and
disease.
Human Factors Psychology
People who work in human factors are focused on improving how people
interact with products and machines both in and out of the workplace.
They might help design products intended to minimize injury or create
workplaces that promote greater accuracy and improved safety.
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
This field of psychology, often referred to as I/O psychology, works to improve
productivity and efficiency in the workplace while also maximizing the well-being
of employees.
Personality Psychology
This field is focused on the study of the thought patterns, feelings, and behaviors
that make each individual unique.
School Psychology
Professionals in this field that work in schools to help kids deal with academic,
emotional, and social issues. School psychologists also collaborate with teachers,
students, and parents to help create a healthy learning environment.
Social Psychology
This field of psychology is focused on the study of topics such as group behavior,
social perception, leadership, nonverbal behavior, aggression and prejudice.
Sports Psychology
Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic
performance, exercise and physical activity. Some sports psychologists work with
professional athletes and coaches to improve performance and increase motivation.
 Importance of Psychology In Nursing
Walker, Payne, Smith, & Jarrett(2007) present some very solid facts showing the
importance of psychology in nursing profession. They are as follows:
 It is important to consider that how people’s thoughts and needs vary and what
best can be done to ensure these needs satisfied.
 It helps in establishing the communication processes in order to improve the
therapeutic relationship and work more effectively in inter-professional contexts.
 Understanding can be built on how people react in different situations of illness,
pain and distress. This also helps in meeting their demands in a better way.
 Psychological factors inform the health care professionals about the lifestyles of
people and how certain health-related behaviours i.e. smoking, dietary change
and exercise, can affect that.
 Logical steps can be taken in order to improve the health and well-being of these
individuals.
 psychology provides an opportunity for nurses to understand their
responsibilities in a better way and perform exactly as what is expected of them.
Psychology plays a vital role in understanding the health-related matters of the
individuals and nurses need to know them.