What is a

Network?

• In its simplest form, a network is nothing more than “two

connected computers sharing resources with one another.”

• It is composed of two main aspects:

o Physical Connection (wires, cables, wireless media)
o Logical Connection (data transporting across the physical media)
 Some Basic Networking
• Rules
The computers in a network must use the same procedures for sending
and receiving data. We call these communication protocols.

• Data must be delivered uncorrupted. If it is corrupted, it’s useless. (There

are Exceptions)

• Computers in a network must be capable of determining the origin and

destination of a piece of information, i.e., its IP and Mac Address.
 Types of Computer Networks (by
• Size)
Personal Area Network (PAN)
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Wireless Local Area Network
(WLAN)
• Campus Area Network (CAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Network
Peer-to-Peer Architecture
Client-Server
• All computers on the network
• The network is composed of client and
are peers servers
• No dedicated servers
• Servers provide resources
• There’s no centralized control
• Clients receive resources
over • Servers provide centralized control over
shared resources network resources (files, printers, etc.)
• Any device can share its resources • Centralizes user accounts, security, and
as it pleases access controls to simplify network
• All computers can act as either administration
a client or a server • More difficult to setup and requires an
• Easy to set-up, and common in IT administrator
homes
and small businesses
 Why Build a Computer
• Network?
Before computer networks, people sent and received information by
hand, using the postal service. This is slow and can be unreliable.

• Computer networks enable faster, more efficient modes of

communication, i.e., email, video conferencing, etc.

• Computer networks and the sharing of electronic data encourage the use
of
standard policies and procedures.

• Computer networks provide backup and recovery support for our data,
i.e., redundancy.

• Computer networks lead to cost savings.

 Personal Area Network
•
(PAN)
Ultra-small networks used for personal use to
share data from one device to another.
• Can be wired (PAN) or wireless (WPAN):
o USB
o Bluetooth
o NFC
o ANT+
• Examples:
o Smart Phone to Laptop
o Smart Watch to Smart Phone
o Smart Phone Hands-Free Car Calling
o Heart Rate M onitor to Smart Phone
 Local Area Network
•
(LAN)
A computer network within a small
geographical area, such as a single room,
building or group of buildings.
• Considered to be self-contained:
o All devices are directly connected via cables
and/or short-range wireless technology.
o Doesn’t require a leased telecommunications line
from an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
• Examples:
o Home Network
o Small Business or Office Network
 Wireless Local Area Network
•
(WLAN)
A LAN that’s dependent on wireless
connectivity or one that extends a traditional
wired LAN to a wireless LAN.
• Most home networks are WLANs.
 Campus Area Network
•
(CAN)
A computer network of multiple
interconnected LANs in a limited
geographical area, such as a corporate
business park, government agency, or
university campus.
• Typically owned or used by a single entity.
 Metropolitan Area Network
•
(MAN)
A computer network that
interconnects users with computer
resources in a city.
• Larger than a campus area network,
but smaller than a wide area network.
 Wide Area Network
•
(WAN)
A computer network that extends over
a large geographical distance,
typically multiple cities and countries.
• WANs connect geographically distant
LANs.
• Typically use leased
telecommunications lines from ISPs.
• Examples:
o The Internet
o Corporate Offices in Different States
 Some Basic Networking
• Rules
The computers in a network must use the same procedures for sending
and receiving data. We call these communication protocols.

• Data must be delivered uncorrupted. If it is corrupted, it’s useless. (There

are Exceptions)

• Computers in a network must be capable of determining the origin and

destination of a piece of information, i.e., its IP and Mac Address.
 What is a
Network?

• In its simplest form, a network is nothing more than “two

connected computers sharing resources with one another.”

• It is composed of two main aspects:

o Physical Connection (wires, cables, wireless media)
o Logical Connection (data transporting across the physical media)
 Computer Networking
Protocols

• Computers communicate with each other with network

protocols.
• Protocols are rules governing how machines exchange data
and enable effective communication.

• Some Everyday Examples

• When you call somebody, you pick up the phone, ensure there is a
dial tone, and if there is, you dial the number.
• When you drive your car, you obey the rules of the road.
 Protocols
• Continued
Physical Protocols: describe the medium (wiring), the
connections (RJ-45 port), and the signal (voltage level on a wire).

• Logical Protocols: software controlling how and when data is

sent and received to computers, supporting physical protocols.

• Computer networks depend on many different types of protocols

in
order to work properly.

• Example Common TCP/IP Suite of Protocols:

o Web Com munication: HTTP
o E-mail: POP3, SMTP, IMAP
o File Transfers: FTP
 The OSI
What is it? Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
• A conceptual framework showing us how data moves
throughout a network.
• Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1977.

It’s Purpose
• Gives us a guide to understanding how networks operate.

It’s only a reference model, so don’t get wrapped up in the details.

• Wasn’t implemented in the real world, TCP/IP is.
 The OSI Model
Stack
The OSI Model breaks down the complex task of computer-to-
computer network communications into seven layers.

Upper Layers (Host Layers)

• Handled by the host computer and performs application-specific
functions, such as data formatting, encryption, and connection
management.

Lower Layers (Media Layers)

• Provide network-specific functions, such as routing, addressing, and
flow control.
The OSI Model
Visualized
OSI
Communication
 The TCP/IP
• The TCP /IP suite is the Model
most commonly
used protocol suite in the networking
world.
• It’s essentially the protocol suite in which
the Internet was built.
• It’s the standard for computer networking.
• It is based on a 4-layer model that is
similar to the OSI model.
• History of TCP/IP:
o Developed by the United States
Department of Defense (DoD) in the early
1970s.
o In 1982, the DOD declared TCP/IP as the
standard for all military computer
networking.
o In 1984, broad adoption of TCP/IP began
(IBM,
AT&T, etc.).
TCP/IP & OSI Models Side-by-
Side
 MAC
Addresses
Media Access Control (MAC)
• Physical address of the network adapter card
• OSI Layer 2 (Data Link) Layer Address
• TCP/IP Layer 1 (Network Interface) Layer Address

Six bytes (48 bits), Usually Represented Hexadecimal

• First three bytes (24 bits) are assigned by the IEEE to the manufacturer
o Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI) assigned by IEEE (ex: Dell
or HP)
• Last three bytes (24 bits) are usually assigned sequentially:
o Unique Numbers

00:21:70:6f:06:f2 00-21-70-6F-06-F2

224 = ~16.7 Million Unique Addresses

 IP
• Addresses
An IP Address is a logical address used in order to uniquely
identify
a device on an IP network.
• It’s a Network Layer address associated with routing.
o OSI Layer 3: Network Layer
o TCP/IP Layer 2: Internet Layer
• There are two versions:
o IP version 4 (IPv4)
 Example: 192.168.0.1
o IP version 6 (IPv6)
 Example: 2001:DB8:85A3:0:0:8A2E:370:7334
• We’ll be discussing both versions in this course.
 Comparing IP and MAC
Addresses
IP Addresses MAC Addresses

• Network (OSI Layer 3)

• Data Link (OSI Layer 2) Addresses
Addresses • Physical Addresses
• Logical Addresses • Physically burned on NIC
• Assigned in Operating System • Allows internetwork communication
• Allows network-to- via hubs, switches, and routers
network communication • Local LAN communication
via routers
• WAN communication
 Half vs. Full Duplex
Communication

• Network communication will occur in either full or half duplex

mode:
o Half Duplex: Can send and receive data, but not at the same time.
o Full Duplex: Can send and receive data simultaneously.
 Network Transmission
• Unicast
Types
• Multicast
• Broadcast
Unicast (One-to-
One)
Multicast (One-to-
Many)
Broadcast (One-to-
All)
 Introduction to
• Ethernet
The most popular networking technology in the world!
• Refers to a family of standards that define the physical and
logical
aspects of the world's most popular type of LAN.
• The standard communications protocol for building a local
area network (LAN).

• Physical
o Cabling, Connectors, Equipment, etc.
• Logical
o Network Access Method, i.e., Carrier Sense Multiple Access
(CSMA)
 Physical vs. Logical
Topologies
Physical topologies describe the placement of network devices
and how they are physically connected.

Logical topologies describe how data flows throughout a network.

 Wired Network Topologies
• Four Specific
Topologies:
o Bus
o Ring
o Star
o Mesh
 Bus Topology
• All devices are connected to a single coaxial network cable.
o Devices are connected via a vampire tap or T-Connector.
o Terminators are required at both ends of the cable to prevent signal bounce.
o Antiquated technology.
• Only one end device can be active on the network at a time.
o Data signals travel in both directions and are received by all devices on the
network.
• A single break in the cable can take down the entire network.
 Ring Topology
• All devices are connected in a circular
fashion.
• Each computer is connected to two other
computers.
• Data travels from node-to-node with each
computer handling data, either
unidirectional or bidirectional.
• Each device (node) in the ring regenerates
the
signal, acting as a repeater.
• Failure of a single node can take down
the entire network.
• Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
uses two counter-rotating ring topologies
for redundancy.
 Star Topology
• All devices are connected to a central
connecting device, which is usually a
switch.
• Devices send data to the switch, which
forwards it to the appropriate
destination device.
• Popular topology in today’s networks.
• Used in most large and small networks.
• Central device is a single point of
failure.
 Mesh Topology
• Each device is connected to every
other device by separate cabling.
• Highly redundant and fault-tolerance.
• Expensive to install.
• Commonly used in Enterprise Networks
& WANs.
• Two Types:
o Partial M esh
o Full M esh
 Wireless Network
• Topologies
Wireless networks utilize radio frequencies (RF) to
communicate.

• Three Specific Topologies:

o Ad hoc
o Infrastructure
o Mesh
 Ad
• P eer-to-peer (P2P )
hoc
wireless network where
no wireless access point
(WAP) infrastructure exits.
• The devices
communicate directly
with one another.
• P ersonal area networks
(PANs) are a common
example of Ad hoc
wireless networks.
 Infrastructure
• Wireless network that uses
a wireless access point
(WAP) as its central
connecting device.
• Infrastructure wireless
networks (WLANs) are
commonly used in homes
and small offices.
 Mes
•
h
Just like a wired mesh design,
wireless mesh networks
utilize several wireless access
points (nodes) to create a
robust wireless network that
is:
o Scalable
o Self-Healing
o Reliable (redundancy)
• Common in larger homes
and businesses.
 Network Interface Card
•
(NIC)
The network adapter installed
on your network device.
• Provides the physical and
electrical, light or radio
frequency connections to the
network media.
• It can either be an expansion
card, USB devices or built
directly into the motherboard.
 Hub
•
s
Used to Connect Devices Together Within a
Network
• Used in Early Networks; Replaced by Switches
• “Multi-Port Repeater”
o Traffic goes in one port and is repeated
(broadcasted) out every other port
o OSI Layer 1 Device
o Dumb Network Device
o Causes increased network collision errors
• Much Less Efficient than a Switch
• Legacy Equipment No Longer Used
 Switche
s
• Connects Devices Together Just Like a Hub
• Intelligent Network Device (OSI Layer 2)
• Memorizes the MAC Address of Each Device Connected
to It via a MAC Address Table, sometimes called a
Content Addressable Memory (CAM) Table
• Pays attention to Source and Destination MAC addresses
during Communication P rocess
• Use Application-Specific Integrated Circuitry (ASIC),
which makes them Extremely Fast
• Breaks up Collision Domains
o Traffic Goes in One Port and Is Repeated out to
Only Destination Port
o Designed for High Bandwidth
o Standard in Today’s Network Infrastructure
 Wireless Access Point
•
(WAP)
A wireless access point (WAP) is a bridge that extends the wired network to
the wireless network.
• Just like a switch, it’s a Data Link Layer 2 device.
• Note: A WAP is not a router.
 Wireless Ranger
•
Extender
Extends the range of a wireless network by acting as a wireless repeater.
• Rebroadcasts radio frequencies from the wireless network it is associated
with
 Router
• Used to Connect
s
Different Networks
Together
• Routes Traffic Between
Networks using IP Addresses
• Uses Intelligent Decisions
(Routing Protocols) to Find the
Best Way to Get a Packet of
Information from One Network
to Another.
• Break Up Broadcast Domains
• OSI Layer 3 Device
o Layer 3 = Router
o Layer 2 = Switch
o Layer 1 = Hub
 Modems
•
(Modulators/Demodulators)
Modems modulate one signal to another, such as analog to digital.
• For example, modulating a telephone analog signal into a digital signal that a
router
can understand.
 Small Office Home Office (SOHO)
•
Device
All-In-One Wireless Router with Expanded Capabilities:
o Router, Wireless Access Point, Firewall, Switch, DHCP Server, NAT Device, File
Server, etc.
 Media
•
Converters
Like its name implies, it converts one media type to
another.
• Layer 1 Device: Performs physical layer signal conversion.
• Ethernet to fiber optic media converters are commonly
used.
 Firewall
•
s
Firewalls are the foundation of a defense-in-depth network security strategy.
• They protect your network from malicious activity on the Internet.
• Prevent unwanted network traffic on different networks from accessing your
network.
• Firewalls do this by filtering data packets that go through them.
• They can be a standalone network device or software on a computer system,
meaning
network-based (hardware) or host-based (software).
 Types of
Packet Filtering Firewalls
Firewalls
• 1st Generation & Most Basic
• Basic Filtering Rules

Circuit-Level Firewalls
• 2nd Generation
• Monitors Valid/Invalid TCP Sessions

Application Layer 7 (NGFW) Firewalls

• 3rd Generation
• Much more Advanced; Covered Later in
Course
 DHCP
•
Server
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Server
• Automatically Assigns IP Addresses to Hosts
• Makes Administering a Network Much Easier
• An Alternative is Static IP addressing
• We'll Talk More About DHCP Later in the Course
 Voice over IP (VoIP)
•
Endpoints
Most phone systems run over IP networks via dedicated protocols, such as the
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), both in-home and office environments.
• VoIP endpoint devices are hardware devices (phones) or software, such as
Cisco Jabber, that allow you to make phone calls.
 Types of Network
• Coaxial
Cabling
• Twisted Pair
• Fiber Optic
 Ethernet
•
Explained
Ethernet is a network protocol that controls how data is transmitted over a
LAN.
• It’s referred to as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
802.3
Standard.
• It supports networks built with coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic cabling.
• The original Ethernet standard supported 10Mbps speeds, but the latest
supports much faster gigabit speeds.
• Ethernet uses CSMA/CD & CSMA/CA access methodology.
 Ethernet N<Signaling>-X
•
Naming
Ethernet uses an “xx Base T” naming convention: 10Base-
T
o N: Signaling Rate, i.e., Speed of the cable.
o <Signaling>: Signaling Type: Baseband (Base)
communication.
o X: Type of cable (twisted pair or fiber).
 Twisted Pair
Cat
Standards
Network Type Ethernet Standard Speed Max. Distance

Cat 3 Ethernet 10Base-T 10Mbps 100 meters

Cat 5 Fast Ethernet 100Base-TX 100Mbps 100 meters

Cat 5e Gigabit Ethernet 1000Base-T 1Gbps 100 meters

Gigabit Ethernet 1000Base-T 1Gbps 100 meters

Cat 6
10 Gigabit Ethernet 10GBase-T 10Gbps 55 meters

Cat 6a 10 Gigabit Ethernet 10GBase-T 10Gbps 100 meters

Cat 7 10 Gigabit Ethernet 10GBase-T 10Gbps 100 meters

Cat: Copper Cabling

Standard.
 Coaxial
•
Cable
Antiquated technology used in the 1980s. Coaxial cables are rarely used today,
except for cable modem connections.
• Categorized as Radio Grade (RG)
o RG-6: Used for modern cable TV and broadband cable modems.
o RG-8: Used in early 10Base5 “Thick-net” Ethernet networks.
o RG-58: Used in early 10Base2 “Thin-net” Ethernet networks.
o RG-59: Used for closed-circuit TV (CCTV) networks
• Metallic shield helps protect against electromagnetic interference (EMI)
 Coaxial Cable
Connectors
F-Connector BNC Connector
• Tension spring twist-
• Screw-on connection on connection
• RG-6 Cable TV and • RG-8 “Thick-net” and
Broadband RG-58 “Thin-
Cable Applications. net” network
applications.
 Twisted Pair Copper
• 4 Twisted PCabling
airs of Wires with RJ-45
Connector
• Balanced pair operation
o + & - Signals
o Equal & Opposite Signal
• Why are they twisted?
o To Help Reduce Interference
• Crosstalk
• Noise (Electromagnetic Interference)
• Security concerns
o Signal Emanations
• 100 Meters Maximum Distance
o Signal Attenuation
 Shielded vs. Unshielded &
• EMI
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
o More susceptible to
electromagnetic interference
(EMI).
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
o Less susceptible to EMI & Crosstalk (if
each pair shielded).
• Electromagnetic Interference
o The disruption of an electronic device's
operation when it's in the vicinity of an
electromagnetic field caused by another
electronic device (manufacturing
equipment, microwave ovens, etc.).
 Roles of
• Twists
Increased twists per
inch:
o Reduces Crosstalk
o Increases Signals
o Supports Faster Speeds
 Twisted Pair
Cat
Standards
Network Type Ethernet Standard Speed Max. Distance Frequency

Cat 3 Ethernet 10Base-T 10Mbps 100 meters 16 MHz

Cat 5 Fast Ethernet 100Base-TX 100Mbps 100 meters 100 MHz

Cat 5e Gigabit Ethernet 1000Base-T 1Gbps 100 meters 100 MHz

Gigabit Ethernet 1000Base-T 1Gbps 100 meters

Cat 6 250 MHz
10 Gigabit Ethernet 10GBase-T 10Gbps 55 meters

Cat 6a 10 Gigabit Ethernet 10GBase-T 10Gbps 100 meters 500 MHz

Cat 7 10 Gigabit Ethernet 10GBase-T 10Gbps 100 meters 600 MHz

Cat: Copper Cabling

Standard.
 Other Copper Cable
Connectors
RJ- DB-9
11
• 4-pin connection used • 9-pin connection used for serial
for connections on networking
telephone connections. devices

DB-25
• 25-pin connection previously
commonly
used for serial printer connections.
 TIA/EIA 568A & 568B Wiring
• Standards
Industry-standard that specifies the
pin arrangement for RJ-45
connectors.
• Two Standards:
• 568A & 568B
• 568B is newer and the recommended
standard.
• Either can be used.
• Why are standards important?
o Lower Costs
o Increase Interoperability
o Easier Maintenance
 Straight-Through & Crossover
Cables
Straight-Through Cable Crossover Cable
• Connecting “Unlike” • Connecting “Like”
Devices Devices
o Computer to Switch o Router to Router
o Switch to Router o Computer to Computer
 Which Twisted Pairs Are Used?
Ethernet & Fast Ethernet Gigabit & 10 Gigabit Ethernet
Cat 3 and Cat 5 Cat 5e & Faster
Only Green and Orange Pairs All Four Pairs Used:
Used: • Supports bi-directional data transmission
• Pins 1, 2, 3, and 6 on each pair of wires.
o One P air to Transmit Data (TX)
o One P air to Receive Data (RX)
 The
• Plenum
The plenum is the open space above the ceiling or below a raised floor.
• A “plenum space” is the part of a building that enables air circulation by
providing pathways for heated/air-conditioned and return airflows at a
higher pressure than normal.
• All network cabling placed in the plenum should be “plenum-rated.”
 Non-Plenum-Rated & Fire
• Hazard
Non-plenum cable or polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) cable is often much less expensive
than plenum-rated cable.
• When PVC burns or smolders, it releases
toxic fumes into the air (Hydrochloric
Acid and Dioxin).
• The plenum air return would
unknowingly circulate toxic air
throughout an office.
• Sprinkler systems typically can’t access
the
plenum area.
• Building codes often require Plenum
Rated cable installed through any
plenum space.
 Plenum-Rated
• Cables
Plenum-rated cables have a special insulation that has low
smoke,
low flame and non-toxic characteristics.
• Coated with nonflammable materials that minimize toxic fumes:
o Teflon
o Fluorinated ethylene polymer (FEP)
o Low-Smoke PVC
 Fiber Optic
• Cabling
Glass or plastic fiber that carries light (photons)
o High Bandwidth: Photons travel faster than electrons.
o Long Distances: Less attenuation.
o Immune to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
o Doesn’t Emanate Signals
• Two Types
o Multi-mode Fiber (MMF)
• Shorter Distances (LAN / Building-to-Building)
• Up to 2 Kilometers
o Single-mode Fiber (SMF)
• More expensive than multi-mode
• Longer Distances (WAN / Across Town)
• Up to 200 Kilometers

Informational Note: 9-micron Single-Mode Fiber can travel 75 miles at 400

Gbps
 MMF versus
SMF
Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF) Single-Mode Fiber (SMF)
• Many photons of light travel • A single direct photon of light
through the cable at once, and travels through the cable,
bounce off the walls, which which allows greater distances
reduces the distance and and speed.
speed. • Smaller Core: 8 to 10 microns
• Larger Core: 50 to 62.5
microns
 Fiber Optic Cable
Connectors
Lucent Connector (LC) Subscriber Connector (SC)
• Small form-factor design that has a flange • Square connector that uses a push-
on the top, similar to an RJ-45 connector. pull connector similar to A/V
• Commonly used in MMF & SMF gigabit equipment.
and 10-gigabit Ethernet networks. • Commonly used in M M F & SM F
gigabit
Ethernet networks.

Straight Tip (ST) Mech. Transfer Register Jack (MTRJ)

• BNC style connector with a half-
• Similar to the RJ-45 connector, and
twist bayonet locking mechanism.
houses
• Was used in M M F networks but
two fiber optics cables.
not commonly used anymore.
• Designed for M M F networks.
 Why use
• Fiber? than twisted pair, as is the
Fiber cable is more expensive
equipment
• But you can perform much longer network cable runs with fiber.
o 100m versus up to 200 Kilometers
• So you have decreased network equipment costs
o Switches, routers, etc.
• P lus fiber is:
o Immune to EMI and signal emanations
o Has lower signal attenuation
o Making it more reliable and secure
• Costs are steadily decreasing as more people adopt fiber
 Cable Selection
Cost Constraints
Criteria
• W hat is your budget?

Transmission Speed Requirements

• How fast does your network need to be?
• 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps?

Distance Requirements
• Electrical signals degrade relatively quickly (100 meters)
• Fiber can transmit over long distances

Noise & Interference Immunity (Crosstalk, EMI, Security)

• Interference is all around us: power cables, microwaves, mobile phones, motors,
etc.
 Layer 7 – Application
• Layer
Where users interact with the computer.
• Acts as an interface between an
application
and end-user protocols.
• Provides an interface to communicate
with the network (Outlook, Chrome,
etc.).
• Applications don’t reside in the application
layer but instead interfaces with
application- layer protocols.
• Example Application Layer Protocols:
o E-Mail: IMAP4, POP3, SM TP
o W eb Browsers: HTTP, HTTPS
o Remote Access: SSH, Telnet
 Layer 6 – Presentation
• Layer
Ensures that data transferred from one
system’s Application Layer can be read by
the Application Layer on another one.
• Provides character code conversion,
data compression, and data
encryption/decryption.
• Example: Google Chrome HTML
converted to
ASCII Format.
 Layer 6 – Presentation
• Example LayerLayer
6 File Formats:
o W eb Browser: HTM L, XML,
JavaScript
o Graphics Files: JPEG, GIF, PNG
o Audio/Video: M PEG, M P3
o Encryption: TLS, SSL
o Text/Data: ASCII, EBCDIC
 Layer 5 - Session
• Layer
Responsible for setting up, managing, and
then tearing down sessions between
network devices.
• Ensures data from different
application sessions are kept
separate.
• Utilizes Application Program
Interfaces (APIs)
to communicate with TCP/IP
protocols.
• Coordinates communication
between systems.
o Start, Stop, Restart
 Layer 5 - Session
Layer
Can provide three different methods of
communication between devices:
• Simplex: One-way communication
between two devices, like listening to a
radio station.
• Half Duplex: Two-way communication
between two devices, but only one
device can communicate at a time.
• Full Duplex: Two-way communication
between two devices, where both sides
can communicate at the same time.
 Layer 4 - Transport
• Layererror-free and
Ensures data is delivered
in
sequence.
• Segments data and reassembles
correctly.
• Can be connection-oriented
or connectionless.
• Considered the “Post Office”
Layer
o TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol)
o UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
o Covered in detail in the next
section.
 Layer 4 - Transport
Responsible for Layer
two data flow control
measures:
• Buffering
o Stores data in memory buffers until
destination device is available.
• Windowing
o Allows devices in session to determine the
“window” size of data segments sent.
 Layer 3 - Network
• Layer
The “Routing” Layer
• Provides logical addressing (IP
Addressing)
and routing services.
• Places two IP addresses into a packet:
o Source Address & Destination IP Address
• Internet Protocol (IP)
o The primary network protocol used on
the Internet, IPv4, IPv6 Logical
Addresses
 Layer 3 - Network
Layer
Types of Packets at Network Layer:
• Data Packets
o Routed Internet Protocol (IP) data packets.
• IPv4 & IPv6
• Route-Update Packets
o Routing protocols designed to update
neighboring routers with router
information for path determination.
o RIP, OSPF, EIGRP, etc.

Layer 3 Devices & Protocols:

• Routers & M ulti-Layer Switches
• IPv4 & IPv6
• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), i.e.,
Ping
 Layer 2 – Data Link
• Layer
The “Switching” Layer
• Ensures that messages are delivered to
the proper device on a LAN using
hardware addresses.
o M AC (Media Access Control) Address
o Only concerned with the local delivery of
frames on the same network.
• Responsible for packaging the data
into frames for the physical layer.
• Translates messages from the Network
layer
into bits for the Physical layer.
 Layer 2 – Data Link
Has two Sub-Layers Layer
• Logical Link Control (LLC) Layer
o Error Control and Flow Control
• Detect and correct corrupted
data frames.
• Limits amount of data sent so
devices
aren’t overwhelmed.
• Media Access Control (MAC) Layer
o Physical Addressing (MAC Address)
• 48-Bit M AC Address burned on
NIC.
o Logical Topology and Media Access
o Ethernet, Token Ring, etc.
o CSM A/CD & CSM A/CA
 Layer 1 – Physical
Layer
Defines the physical and electrical medium
for
network communication:
• Sending and receiving bits (1 or 0)
• Encoding Signal Types
o Electricity, radio waves, light
• Network Cabling, Jacks, Patch Panels, etc.
o Copper or Fiber
• Physical Network
Topology
o Star, M esh, Ring, etc.
• Ethernet IEEE 802.3
Standard
• Layer 1 Equipment
o Hubs, Media
Converters, Modems
It’s responsible for the
network hardware and
physical topology.
OSI Encapsulation & De-
Encapsulation
OSI Encapsulation & De-
Encapsulation
 What is
• TCP/IP?
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol
• Commonly called the Internet
Protocol suite because it was
designed for the Internet, but LANs
use it too.
• First Two Protocols Defined in the
Suite
Were:
o TCP & IP, hence TCP/IP
• Similar to the OSI Model, but Simpler:
o OSI is Conceptual
o TCP/IP was Implemented
 TCP/IP
Protocols
Layer Protocols
Application FTP, TFTP, DNS, HTTP(S), TLS/SSL, SSH, POP3, IMAP4, NTP, Telnet, SMTP, SNMP

Transport TCP, UDP and Ports

Internet IP Addressing (Routing), ICMP, ARP
Network Interface Ethernet, Token Ring

These protocols work together to provide communication,

management,
diagnostics, and troubleshooting for a TCP/IP network.
 Network Access
CSMA Methods Token Ring
• Carrier Sense • The Token
o Checks network for o Passed between devices on
communication. the network.
• Multiple Access o Only devices with the token can
o M ultiple devices using the network. send data.
o Token prevents network collisions.
• Collision Detection
o Wired Network
• Collision Avoidance
o Wireless Network
 Address Resolution Protocol
• Resolves IP(ARP)
address to MAC Addresses
• Finds the hardware address of a host from a know IP
address
o And vice versa (RARP)
ARP Command: arp -a
 ARP
Diagram

If a computer knows a device’s IP address but not its MAC address, it’ll send a
broadcast
message to all devices on the LAN asking which device is assigned that MAC address.
 The Internet Protocol
• An OSI Layer (IP)
3 protocol that defines routing and logical addressing of
packets
that allow data to traverse WANs and the Internet.
• It specifies the formatting of packets and the logical addressing schema
o IP addresses: IPv4 and IPv6
• Its job is to connect different OSI Layer 2 (switched) networks together.
• Provides end-to-end connectivity from one Layer 2 network to another via
routers.
 The Internet Protocol
• (IP)
It’s connectionless and, therefore, unreliable (similar to UDP).
o No continued connection.
• Each packet sent is independent of each other packet.
o TCP and other protocols provide a means to reassemble them
properly.
o Packets don’t always follow the same path to their destination.
o They’re sent via the most efficient route.
• Doesn’t provide any error recovery or sequencing functionality.
o That’s the job of other protocols.
 Internet Control Message Protocol
• (ICMP)
OSI Layer 3 Internet Protocol (IP) companion “error reporting” protocol
within
the TCP/IP suite of protocols.
• Just like IP, it’s connectionless.
• Used to generate error messages to the source IP address when
network issues prevent the delivery of a packet.
• Typically used by routers to report packet delivery issues, and,
most importantly, it can report errors but not correct them.
• Commonly used by IT administrators to troubleshoot network
connections with command-line utilities, including ping, pathping, and
traceroute.
• For IPv6, it is also used for:
o Neighbor Solicitation and Advertisement Messages (Similar to ARP)
o Router Solicitation and Advertisement Messages
 (Some) ICMP Message Types
• Echo Request, Echo Reply: Tests destination accessibility and status. A host sends an
Echo Request and listens for a corresponding Echo Reply. Commonly done using the
ping command.
• Destination Unreachable: Sent by a router when it can’t deliver an IP packet.
• Source Quench: Sent by a host or router if it’s receiving too much data than it can
handle.
The message requests that the source reduces its rate of data transmission.
• Redirect Message: Sent by a router if it receives a packet that should have been sent
to a different router. The message includes the IP address to which future packets
should be sent and is used to optimize the routing.
• Time Exceeded: Sent by a router if a packet has reached the maximum limit of
routers through which it can travel.
• Router Advertisement, Router Solicitation (IPv6): Allow hosts to discover the existence
of routers. Routers periodically multicast their IP addresses via Router Advertisement
messages. Hosts may also request a router IP address by broadcasting a Router
Solicitation message, then wait for a router to reply with a Router Advertisement.
 Understanding Protocols, Ports, and
Sockets
Protocols
• Computers communicate with each other with network
protocols.
• Protocols are rules governing how machines exchange data
and enable effective communication.
• In an operating system (OS), a protocol runs as a process or
service.
Ports
• Ports are logical constructs that bind a unique port number to
a protocol process or service.
Sockets
• Sockets are a combination of an IP address and a port number,
for example, 192.168.1.1:80.
 Why We Need Ports and
• Sockets
Computers require ports because of network
application multitasking.
• Because a computer may have only one IP
address, it needs ports to differentiate network
protocols and services running on it.
• TCP/IP has 65,536 ports available

Port Type Port Numbers Description

Well Known Ports 0 – 1023 Assigned to well-known protocols.

Registered Ports 1024 – 49,151 Registered to specific protocols.

Dynamic Ports 49,152 – 65,535 Not registered and used for any purpose.
 Protocols & Port
Numbers
Service, Protocol, or Application Port Number(s) TCP or UDP
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) 20, 21 TCP

Secure FTP (SFTP) 22 TCP

SSH (Secure Shell Protocol) 22 TCP

Telnet 23 TCP

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) 25 TCP

DNS (Domain Name System) 53 UDP

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) 67, 68 UDP

TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) 69 UDP

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) 80 TCP

POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) 110 TCP

 Protocols & Port
Numbers
Service, Protocol, or Application Port Number(s) TCP or UDP
NTP (Network Time Protocol) 123 UDP

IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol version 4) 143 TCP

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) 161 UDP

LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) 389 TCP

HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) 443 TCP

Server Message Block (SMB) 445 TCP

LDAPS (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol Secure) 636 TCP

RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol) 3389 TCP

ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector A/V Recommendation (H.323) 1720 TCP

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) 5060, 5061 TCP

 TCP vs.
Transport Layer Protocols
UDP
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Connection-
Oriented
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Connectionless

TCP is the most widely used Transport Layer protocol

because it is connection-oriented, which provides packet
delivery reliability, i.e., guaranteed delivery.

UDP, being connectionless, is considered to be unreliable;

however, it is more lightweight than TCP and often used
for streaming or real-time data.
 TCP
• Reliability
TCP utilizes the following features to ensure reliable delivery of
data.
o 3-Way Handshake creates a virtual connection between the source and
destination before data is sent.
o Acknowledgment is required before the next segment is sent.
o Checksum that detects corrupted data.
o Sequence Numbers that detect missing data and reassemble them in
the correct order.
o Retransmission that will retransmit lost or corrupt data.

• Note: TCP header is 20 bytes in size, whereas the UDP header is

only
8 bytes.
 TCP Three-Way
• Handshake
A connection must be established before data is transmitted,
called
the three-way handshake.
o SYN  SYN / ACK  ACK
• Creates a Virtual Connection Between 2 Devices
 “Best Effort”
• UDP
A scaled-down, economic version of
TCP
o Connectionless & Unreliable
o No Data Retransmissions
o “Best Effort”
• Faster than TCP
o Smaller Header & Connectionless
• P rimarily used for protocols that favor:
• Low-Latency, i.e., Faster Speeds
• Can Tolerate Data Loss
 “Best Effort”
• UDP
Example UDP Use-Cases
o VoIP Phone Calls
o Live Video Streams
o Live Audio Streams
o Online Gaming
o Certain Network Management
Protocols
o DNS
o DHCP
o NTP
 Application Layer Management
• Protocols
Domain Name System (DNS)
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
• Network Time P rotocol (NTP)
• Simple Network Management P rotocol
(SNMP)
• Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)
• LDAP Secure (LDAPS)
• Server Message Block (SMB)
 Domain Name System
(DNS)
Port: 53 Transport Layer Protocol: UDP

• Protocol that is used to resolve a domain name to its corresponding IP

address
o InstructorAlton.com  162.0.232.236
• Uses TCP port 53 by default
• We’ll be discussing DNS in detail in the DNS Network Services section of
this course:
o DNS Hierarchy
o DNS Record Types
o Name Resolution
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) Ports: 67, 68 Transport Layer Protocol: UDP

• Protocol that automatically assigns IP address configurations to devices on

a
network:
o IP Address
o Subnet M ask
o Default Gateway
o DNS Server
• We’ll be discussing how DHCP works in detail in the Assigning IP
Addresses
section of this course
• Uses two UDP ports 67 and 68 by default
 Network Time Protocol
(NTP)
Port: 123 Transport Layer Protocol: TCP

• Protocol that automatically synchronizes a system’s time with a network time

server.
o Important for time-dependent network applications and protocols.
o If a system is configured with the incorrect time, it may not be able to access network
services.
o Authentication will often fail if time isn’t properly synchronized between devices.
• Uses TCP port 123 by default.
 Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP) Port: 161
Protocol: TCP
Transport Layer

• Protocol used to monitor and manage network devices

• Allows admins to monitor and manage network devices and traffic.
• Allows network devices to communicate information about their
state:
o Memory
o CPU
o Bandwidth
• Uses TCP port 161 by default
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
(LDAP) Port: 389 Transport Layer Protocol: TCP

• Protocol that provides a means to access and query directory service

systems:
o Usernames, Passwords, Computer Accounts, etc.
• Typically Unix/Linux-based or Microsoft Active Directory-based
• Uses TCP 389 by default
 LDAP Secure
(LDAPS)
Port: 636
Protocol: TCP
Transport Layer

• LDAP over SSL

• A secure version of LDAP that utilizes SSL to encrypt LDAP network
traffic
• Uses TCP port 636 by default
 Server Message Block
(SMB)
Port: 445 Transport Layer Protocol: TCP

• Network and file sharing protocol commonly used in Microsoft

environments
• Allows systems to share their files and printers with other systems
• Uses TCP port 445 by default
 Application Layer Remote Communication
Protocols
• Telnet
• Secure Shell (SSH)
• Remote Desktop P rotocol
(RDP)
 Telnet
Port: 23 Transport Layer Protocol: TCP

• Legacy protocol used to “insecurely” connect to a remote host

o Data is transferred in clear text, so it’s considered insecure
o Largely replaced by SSH
• Today it’s primarily used to access managed network devices, such as routers
via a
serial connection
• Use TCP Port 23 by default
 Secure Shell
(SSH)
Port: 22
Protocol: TCP
Transport Layer

• A cryptographic protocol that’s used to securely connect to a remote

host
o Utilizes a terminal console
o Typically Unix and Linux Machines, but also available on Windows and Mac OS
• Encrypts data with public key infrastructure (PKI), making it secure
o Considered secure replacement for Telnet
• Uses TCP port 22 by default
 Remote Desktop Protocol
(RDP)
Port: 3389 Transport Layer Protocol: TCP

• A Microsoft protocol that allows users to remotely connect to, view, and
control acomputer from a Windows
remote
desktop.
• Built into the M icrosoft operating system.
• Uses TCP port 3389 by default
 Application Layer File Transfer
• Protocols
File Transfer P rotocol (FTP)
• Secure File Transfer Protocol
(SFTP)
• Trivial File Transfer P rotocol
(TFTP )
 File Transfer Protocol
(FTP)
Ports: 20, 21
Protocol: TCP
Transport Layer

• Legacy protocol used to transfer files between systems

o Slowly being replaced by Secure FTP (SFTP)
• Can authenticate with a username and password or utilize anonymous
logins
• Data is transferred in clear text, so it’s considered insecure
• Full-featured functionality:
o View, list, add, delete, etc. files and folders
• Uses two TCP ports by default:
o Port 20 for Data: Data Transfers
o Port 21 for Control: Commands
 Secure File Transfer Protocol
(SFTP) Port: 22 Transport Layer Protocol: TCP
• A secure cryptographic version of FTP that uses SSH to provide encryption
services.
o Provides file transfer over SSH
• Uses TCP port 22 by default (same port as SSH)
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol
(TFTP) Port: 69 Transport Layer Protocol: UDP
• A bare-bones version of FTP used for simple downloads
o Doesn’t support authentication
o Doesn’t support directory navigation
• Requires that you request the exact file (and location)
• Often used to transfer software images for routers and switches during
upgrades
• Utilizes UDP port 69 by default
 Application Layer Email
• Protocols
Simple Mail Transfer P rotocol (SMTP)
• Post Office Protocol Version 3 (POP3)
• Internet Message Access Protocol
(IMAP)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP) Port: 25 Transport Layer Protocol: TCP
• Email protocol that is used to deliver emails from an email client (Outlook)
to a
destination email server
• Can be configured to use encryption (recommended) or plain text
• Uses TCP Port 25 by default
 Post Office Protocol Version 3
(POP3) Port: 110
Layer Protocol: TCP
Transport

• Email protocol that is used to retrieve emails from an email

server
• Can be configured to use encryption (recommended) or plain
text
• Uses TCP Port 110 by default
 Internet Message Access Protocol
(IMAP) Port: 143 Transport Layer Protocol: TCP
• Another email protocol that is quickly replacing POP3
• Allows users to access email on servers and either read the email on the
server or download the email to the client machine
• Popular when a user accesses email from multiple different devices
• Web-based email clients, such as Gmail, use IMAP
• Uses TCP port 143 by default
 Application Layer Web Browser
• Protocols
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• HTTP Secure (HTTPS)
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) Port: 80 Transport Layer Protocol: TCP
• Protocol that provides browsing services for the World Wide Web (WWW)
o Retrieves the content of a web page from a web server
o Requests are made in hypertext markup language (HTML) and returned to your
browser in that format
• Data is sent in plain text
• Uses TCP Port 80 by default
 HTTP Secure
(HTTPS)
Port: 443
Protocol: TCP
Transport Layer

• HTTP over Secure Socket Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS)
• A secure version of HTTP that utilizes SSL/TLS to encrypts HTTP
content
• Utilizes Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
• Uses TCP Port 443 by default
 Understanding IPv4
• Addresses
An IP Address is a logical address used in order to uniquely identify a
device on an IP network.
• It’s a Network Layer Address
• There are Two Versions:
o IP version 4 (IPv4)
o IP version 6 (IPv6)
• This lesson focuses on IPv4, and we’ll discuss IPv6 later in the course.
 IPv4 Address
• Anatomy
Made up of 32 binary bits, which can be divided into a network portion
and a
host portion with the help of a subnet mask.
o The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits).
o Each octet is converted to decimal and separated by a period (dot).
o For this reason, an IP address is said to be expressed in dotted decimal format.
 IPv4 Address
Anatomy

First Second Third Fourth

Octet Octet Octet Octet
192 . 168 . 1 . 131

11000000 . 10101000 . 00000001 . 10000011

8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits

 Network and Host
• An IP address Portion
is broken down into two parts:
• Network Address
• Uniquely identifies each network
• Your Street Name: 7682 Wilshire Drive
• Host Address
• Uniquely identifies each machine on a
network
• Your House Address: 7682 Wilshire Drive

• Network Address + Host Address = IP Address

• Wilshire Drive 7682
 IPv4 Address
• Co
Each device on mponents
a network is assigned an IP address, subnet mask and
default gateway:
o IP Address: Unique logical address assigned to each device on a network.
o Subnet Mask: Used by the device to determine what subnet it’s on, specifically
the
network and host portions of the IP address.
o Default Gateway: The IP address of a network’s router that allows devices on the
local
network to communicate with other networks.
 Basics of Binary
Lecture Goals Math
• Convert Binary to
Decimal
• Convert Decimal to
Binary
 Basics of Binary
Math
Why is it important?
We need to know basic binary math to perform subnetting, as well as
to
understand how IPv4 addresses work.

Remember This
128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 255
 What is the binary 11111111 in
decimal?
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Decimal 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 255 Decimal

Add the number where there is a

“1”. Add zero, when there is a “0”.
 What is the binary 10101010 in
decimal?
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Decimal 128 + 0 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 170 Decimal

Add the number where there is a

“1”. Add zero, when there is a “0”.
 What is the binary 10000011 in
decimal?
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Decimal 128 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 131 Decimal

Add the number where there is a

“1”. Add zero, when there is a “0”.
 What’s 192 in
binary?
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 11000000
Decimal 128 + 64 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 192 Decimal

Start adding the numbers from left to right until you achieve the decimal
amount you are looking for!
 What’s 202 in
binary?
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 = 11001010
Decimal 128 + 64 + 0 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 202 Decimal

Start adding the numbers from left to right until you achieve the decimal
amount you are looking for!
 What’s 54 in
binary?
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 = 00110110
Decimal 0 + 0 + 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0 = 54 Decimal

Start adding the numbers from left to right until you achieve the decimal
amount you are looking for!
 IP Address Conversion
Process
192. 168. 32. 4 Dotted Decimal

11000000. 10101000. 00100000. 00000100 Binary

1st Octet 2nd Octet 3rd Octet 4th Octet

Whether you are given an IP address in dotted-decimal or binary format, follow

the respective process above for each octet one by one until you have
completed the process.
 Binary Math Worksheet ANSWER KEY

BINARY MATH WORKSHEET ANSWER KEY

CONVERSION CHART

128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1

1. CONVERT 11110000 TO DECIMAL

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 =
Decimal 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 240 Decimal

2. CONVERT 10011001 TO DECIMAL

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 =
Decimal 128 + 0 + 0 + 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 153 Decimal

3. CONVERT 01101011 TO DECIMAL

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 =
Decimal 0 + 64 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 107 Decimal

4. CONVERT 10110011 TO DECIMAL

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 =
Decimal 128 + 0 + 32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 179 Decimal

5. CONVERT 240 TO BINARY

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 = 11110000 Binary
Decimal 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 =
 Binary Math Worksheet ANSWER KEY

6. CONVERT 163 TO BINARY

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 = 10100011 Binary
Decimal 128 + 0 + 32 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1 =

7. CONVERT 94 TO BINARY

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 = 01011110 Binary
Decimal 0 + 64 + 0 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 0 =

8. CONVERT 225 TO BINARY

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 = 11100001 Binary
Decimal 128 + 64 + 32 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 =

9. CONVERT THE FOLLOWING IP ADDRESS FROM DECIMAL TO BINARY

192.168.98.18

 192 = 11000000
 168 = 10101000
 98 = 01100010
 18 = 00010010

Binary Format: 11000000. 10101000. 01100010. 00010010

10. CONVERT THE FOLLOWING IP ADDRESS FROM BINARY TO DECIMAL

01000010.11010010.11000110.11000101

 01000010 = 66
 11010010 = 210
 11000110 = 198
 11000101 = 197

Dotted Decimal Format: 66.210.198.197

 Binary Math Worksheet

BINARY MATH WORKSHEET

CONVERSION CHART

128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1

1. CONVERT 11110000 TO DECIMAL

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary =
Decimal + + + + + + + =

2. CONVERT 10011001 TO DECIMAL

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary =
Decimal + + + + + + + =

3. CONVERT 01101011 TO DECIMAL

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary =
Decimal + + + + + + + =

4. CONVERT 10110011 TO DECIMAL

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary =
Decimal + + + + + + + =

5. CONVERT 240 TO BINARY

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary =
Decimal + + + + + + + =
 Binary Math Worksheet

6. CONVERT 163 TO BINARY

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary =
Decimal + + + + + + + =

7. CONVERT 94 TO BINARY

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary =
Decimal + + + + + + + =

8. CONVERT 225 TO BINARY

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary =
Decimal + + + + + + + =

9. CONVERT THE FOLLOWING IP ADDRESS FROM DECIMAL TO BINARY

192.168.98.18

10. CONVERT THE FOLLOWING IP ADDRESS FROM BINARY TO DECIMAL

01000010.11010010.11000110.11000101
 IPv4 Address Classes
(Simplified)
Class Network Bits Host Bits Address Range

A 8 24 1.0.0.0 – 126.255.255.255

B 16 16 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255

C 24 8 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255
Network and Host
Bits
 IPv4 Address Classes
(Detailed)
Leading Network Remaining Number of Hosts Per Default
Class
Bits Bits Bits Networks Network Subnet Mask

Class A 0 (1-126) 8 24 128 (27) 16,777,216 (224) 255.0.0.0

Class B 10 (128-191) 16 16 16,384 (214) 65,536(216) 255.255.0.0

Class C 110 (192-223) 24 8 2,097,152 (221) 256(28) 255.255.255.0

Class D 1110 (224-239)

Not Not Not Not Not
(multicast) Defined Defined Defined Defined Defined

Class E 1111 (240-255)

Not Not Not Not Not
(reserved) Defined Defined Defined Defined Defined
 Default Subnet Masks
• The Subnet Mask tells you which portion of the IP address identifies
the network and which portion identifies the host.
• Below are default Class A, B, and C Subnet Masks.
 Let’s Practice
What class are the following IP Addresses?

• IP Address: 9.10.40.15
• Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0

• IP Address: 135.240.110.100
• Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0

• IP Address: 196.200.10.5
• Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
 CIDR Notation
• CIDR: Classless Inter-Domain Routing
o A methodology for subnetting
o “Slash” Notation tells you how many bits are associated with the Subnet
Mask

• A shortcut way of telling us what the Subnet Mask is:

o /8 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
o /8 = 255.0.0.0

• 192.168.1.0 /24 = 255.255.255.0

• 10.1.0.0 /16 = 255.255.0.0
• 196.10.10.0/25 = 255.255.255.128
 Understanding the Power
• ofpower
We use the 2 of 2 in IP addressing and
subnetting.
• It’s important to memorize the power of 2.

21 = 2 22 = 4 23 = 8 24 = 16

25 = 32 26 = 64 27 = 128 28 = 256

29 = 512 210 = 1,024 211 = 2,048 212 = 4,096

Using Power of 2 to Determine Network
Hosts

• Hosts Per Network = 2h – 2, where h is the number of host bits

available.
• We subtract two because each network includes a network address
and
broadcast address that are not available for use by network end
devices.
 Public versus Private IP
Addresses
Public IP Addresses Private IP Addresses
• Original Design of Internet • “Unregistered” – Free for Use by
• “Registered” Public IP Addresses Anybody!

• Assigned by an ISP to a Business • Designed for Use within

or Home Private Internal Networks

• Must be Globally Unique • Can Be Used Over and Over

o Web Again
Servers • Cannot be Used or Routed on a
o DNS Public Network
Servers
• Utilizes NAT to “Speak” to Public
• By
o the Early 1990s, the World was
Routers
Networks, i.e., the Internet!
Running out of Public IP Addresses
• Private IP Addresses & Network
Address Translation (NAT) were
Born!
 Private IP Address
Ranges
Class IP Address Range Network ID(s) (CIDR Notation) Number of Addresses
10.0.0.0 /8 16,777,216 IP Addresses
A 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255 • 1 Private Class A Network Per Network ID
172.16.0.0 – 172.31.0.0 /16 65,534 IP Addresses
B 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255 • 16 Private Class B Networks Per Network ID
192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.0 /24 254 IP Addresses
C 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255 • 256 Private Class C Networks Per Network ID
 The Loopback
• Address
127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 is reserved for loopback, i.e., a host’s own
address,
also known as the localhost address.
o 127.0.0.1 is typically configured as the default loopback address on operating
systems.
• Used for diagnostics purposes to check that TCP/IP is correctly installed on a
host’s operating system.
o When a process creates a packet destined to the loopback address, the
operating system loops it back to itself without it ever interfacing with the NIC.
o Data sent on the loopback is forwarded by the operating system to a virtual
network interface within the operating system.
• If you can successfully ping 127.0.0.1 or any IP within the loopback range,
then TCP/IP on your computer is properly working.
o P ing 127.0.0.1
o P ing localhost
o P ing loopback
 Why Subnet?
• Using default Class A, B and C subnets (called Classful IP
Addressing) is inefficient:
o Wastes unused IP Addresses (Public IP Addresses)
• Allows you to create multiple logical networks that exist within
a single Class A, B, or C network.
o Breaks up larger networks into multiple smaller sub-networks,
which are
called subnets
• Allows for more efficient routing via router summarization.
• Increased network security!
 Fixed Length
• Subnetting
We will be learning about fixed-length subnetting, known as a
fixed- length subnet mask (FLSM).
• There is also variable-length subnetting (VLSM), which is beyond
the scope of this beginner’s course.
 Class C Subnetting
• You’re the networkExample
administrator for
the
Computer Science department at Subnet 1 (Lecture Hall 1) Subnet 2 (Lecture Hall 2)
a university. • 200.15.178.0/26 • 200.15.178.64/26
• 62 Hosts • 62 Hosts
• You’re setting up four new lecture halls
that must have their own 60-person
wireless network.
• You’ve been assigned the 200.15.178.0 200.15.178.0
Class C Network by the university, that Class C Network
supports 254 hosts per network by (254 Hosts)
default.
• How do you break up this one Class C
network into 4 smaller networks that Subnet 3 (Lecture Hall 3) Subnet 4 (Lecture Hall 4)
support 60 host IP addresses per • 200.15.178.128/26 • 200.15.178.192/26
network? • 62 Hosts • 62 Hosts
• You subnet it.
• Subnetting allows your to breakup a
larger
network into smaller networks (subnets).
 Process of
• Subnetting
We borrow host bits to create more sub-networks (subnets) from
a Class A, B, or C network.

• When you borrow hosts bits:

o You create additional sub-networks, i.e., subnets
o You also decrease the amount of host IP addresses available to use
 How to Create
• Subnets
Borrow bits from the host portion of an IP
address
• Each bit we borrow is equal to 21 Subnets
• Borrow 1 Host Bit = 21 = 2
• Borrow 2 Host Bits = 22 = 4
• Borrow 3 Host Bits = 23 = 8
• Borrow 4 Host Bits = 24 = 16
• Etc.
Creating Subnets Visualized
 Subnetting Questions
• To Create a Subnet, Answer the Following
Questions:
o How many subnets are needed?
o How many hosts do you need per subnet?
 Class C Possible Subnets
Binary (N.N.N.H) Decimal CIDR # Subnets (2x) Block Size (2y) # Hosts (2y - 2)
N.N.N.00000000 255.255.255.0 /24 20 = 1 28 = 256 28 – 2 = 254
N.N.N.10000000 255.255.255.128 /25 21 = 2 27 = 128 27 – 2 = 126
N.N.N.11000000 255.255.255.192 /26 22 = 4 26 = 64 26 – 2 = 62
N.N.N.11100000 255.255.255.224 /27 23 = 8 25 = 32 25 – 2 = 30
N.N.N.11110000 255.255.255.240 /28 24 = 16 24 = 16 24 – 2 = 14
N.N.N.11111000 255.255.255.248 /29 25 = 32 23 = 8 23 – 2 = 6
N.N.N.11111100 255.255.255.252 /30 26 = 64 22 = 4 22 – 2 = 2

Number of Subnets (2x)

• X = number of host bits we borrow to create subnets
Block Size (2y)
• Y = number of remaining host bits left that are used for the subnet IP addresses
Hosts per Subnet (2y – 2)
• There are two addresses per network (or subnet) that we cannot use to assign to hosts on that
network:
o Network Address: This is the address used to uniquely identify the network (or subnet).
o Broadcast Address: Address reserved for broadcast communication on the network.
 Class B Possible Subnets
Binary (N.N.H.H) Decimal CIDR # Subnets (2x) Block Size (2y) # Hosts (2y - 2)
N.N.00000000.00000000 255.255.0.0 /16 20 = 1 216 = 65,536 216 – 2 = 65,534
N.N.10000000.00000000 255.255.128.0 /17 21 = 2 215 = 32,768 215 – 2 = 32,766
N.N.11000000.00000000 255.255.192.0 /18 22 = 4 214 = 16,384 214 – 2 = 16,382
N.N.11100000.00000000 255.255.224.0 /19 23 = 8 213 = 8,192 213 – 2 = 8,190
N.N.11110000.00000000 255.255.240.0 /20 24 = 16 212 = 4,096 212 – 2 = 4,094
N.N.11111000.00000000 255.255.248.0 /21 25 = 32 211 = 2,048 211 – 2 = 2,046
N.N.11111100.00000000 255.255.252.0 /22 26 = 64 210 = 1,024 210 – 2 = 1,022
N.N.11111110.00000000 255.255.254.0 /23 27 = 128 29 = 512 29 – 2 = 510
N.N.11111111.00000000 255.255.255.0 /24 28 = 256 28 = 256 28 – 2 = 254
N.N.11111111.10000000 255.255.255.128 /25 29 = 512 27 = 128 27 – 2 = 126
N.N.11111111.11000000 255.255.255.192 /26 210 = 1,024 26 = 64 26 – 2 = 62
N.N.11111111.11100000 255.255.255.224 /27 211 = 2,048 25 = 32 25 – 2 = 30
N.N.11111111.11110000 255.255.255.240 /28 212 = 4,096 24 = 16 24 – 2 = 14
N.N.11111111.11111000 255.255.255.248 /29 213 = 8,192 23 = 8 23 – 2 = 6
N.N.11111111.11111100 255.255.255.252 /30 214 = 16,384 22 = 4 22 – 2 = 2
 Class A Possible Subnets
Binary (N.H.H.H) Decimal CIDR # Subnets (2x) Block Size (2y) # Hosts (2y - 2)
N.00000000.00000000.00000000 255.0.0.0 /8 20 = 1 222 = 16,777,216 222 – 2 = 16,777,214
N.10000000.00000000.00000000 255.128.0.0 /9 21 = 2 223 = 8,388,608 223 – 2 = 8,388,606
N.11000000.00000000.00000000 255.192.0.0 /10 22 = 4 222 = 4,194,304 222 – 2 = 4,194,302
N.11100000.00000000.00000000 255.224.0.0 /11 23 = 8 221 = 2,097,152 221 – 2 = 2,097,150
N.11110000.00000000.00000000 255.240.0.0 /12 24 = 16 220 = 1,048,576 220 – 2 = 1,048,574
N.11111000.00000000.00000000 255.248.0.0 /13 25 = 32 219 = 524,288 219 – 2 = 524,286
N.11111100.00000000.00000000 255.252.0.0 /14 26 = 64 218 = 262,144 218 – 2 = 262,142
N.11111110.00000000.00000000 255.254.0.0 /15 27 = 128 217 = 131,072 217 – 2 = 131,070
N.11111111.00000000.00000000 255.255.0.0 /16 28 = 256 216 = 65,536 216 – 2 = 65,534
N.11111111.10000000.00000000 255.255.128.0 /17 29 = 512 215 = 32,768 215 – 2 = 32,766
N.11111111.11000000.00000000 255.255.192.0 /18 210 = 1,024 214 = 16,384 214 – 2 = 16,382
N.11111111.11100000.00000000 255.255.224.0 /19 211 = 2,048 213 = 8,192 213 – 2 = 8,190
N.11111111.11110000.00000000 255.255.240.0 /20 212 = 4,096 212 = 4,096 212 – 2 = 4,094
N.11111111.11111000.00000000 255.255.248.0 /21 213 = 8,192 211 = 2,048 211 – 2 = 2,046
N.11111111.11111100.00000000 255.255.252.0 /22 214 = 16,384 210 = 1,024 210 – 2 = 1,022
N.11111111.11111110.00000000 255.255.254.0 /23 215 = 32,768 29 = 512 29 – 2 = 510
N.11111111.11111111.00000000 255.255.255.0 /24 216 = 65,536 28 = 256 28 – 2 = 254
N.11111111.11111111.10000000 255.255.255.128 /25 217 = 131,072 27 = 128 27 – 2 = 126
N.11111111.11111111.11000000 255.255.255.192 /26 218 = 262,144 26 = 64 26 – 2 = 62
N.11111111.11111111.11100000 255.255.255.224 /27 219 = 524,288 25 = 32 25 – 2 = 30
N.11111111.11111111.11110000 255.255.255.240 /28 220 = 1,048,576 24 = 16 24 – 2 = 14
N.11111111.11111111.11111000 255.255.255.248 /29 221 = 2,097,152 23 = 8 23 – 2 = 6
N.11111111.11111111.11111100 255.255.255.252 /30 222 = 4,194,304 22 = 4 22 – 2 = 2
 Subnet Calculation Table (2 x )
Host Bits Borrowed 2x Number of Subnets Created
1 21 2
2 22 4
3 23 8
4 24 16
5 25 32
6 26 64
7 27 128
8 28 256
9 29 512
10 210 1,024
11 211 2,048
12 212 4,096
Etc.…
Subnet Hosts & Addresses Calculation Table (2 Y )

Host Bits Left 2y Addresses per Subnet (2y) Hosts per Subnet (2y – 2)
1 21 2 0
2 22 4 2
3 23 8 6
4 24 16 14
5 25 32 30
6 26 64 62
7 27 128 126
8 28 256 254
9 29 512 510
10 210 1,024 1,022
11 211 2,048 2,046
12 212 4,096 4,094
 Subnetting Reference Material

Subnetting Reference Tables

POWER OF 2’S TABLE

21
= 2 29
= 512
= 4 = 1,024
22 = 8 210 = 2,048
= 16 = 4,096
23 211
= 32 = 8,192
24 = 64 212 = 16,384
= 128 = 32,768
25 = 256 213 = 65,536
26 214
DEFAULT
7 SUBNET MASK
2 215

2Class
8 Format Default216
Subnet Mask
A network.host.host.host 255.0.0.0
B network.network.host.host 255.255.0.0
C network.network.network.host 255.255.255.0

BINARY MATH TABLE

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 Subnetting Reference Material

SUBNET MASK TABLE

Binary Decimal
00000000 0
10000000 128
11000000 192
11100000 224
11110000 240
11111000 248
11111100 252

SUBNET CALCULATION TABLE (2 X )

Host Bits Borrowed 22x1

Number of Subnets Created
1 2
2 22 4
3 23 8
4 24 16
5 25 32
6 26 64
7 27 128
8 28 256
9 29 512
10 210 1,024
11 211 2,048
12 212 4,096

SUBNET HOSTS & ADDRESSES CALCULATION TABLE (2 Y )

Host Bits Left 22y1

Hosts per Subnet (2y – 2) Addresses per Subnet (2y)
1 0 2
2 22 2 4
3 23 6 8
4 24 14 16
5 25 30 32
6 26 62 64
7 27 126 128
8 28 254 256
9 29 510 512
10 210 1,022 1,024
11 211 2,046 2,048
12 212 4,094 4,096
 Subnetting Reference Material

CLASS C POSSIBLE SUBNET MASKS

Binary (N.N.N.H) Decimal CIDR # Subnets (2x) Block Size (2y) # Hosts (2y - 2)
N.N.N.00000000 255.255.255.0 /24 20 = 1 28 = 256 28 – 2 = 254
N.N.N.10000000 255.255.255.128 /25 21 = 2 27 = 128 27 – 2 = 126
N.N.N.11000000 255.255.255.192 /26 22 = 4 26 = 64 26 – 2 = 62
N.N.N.11100000 255.255.255.224 /27 23 = 8 25 = 32 25 – 2 = 30
N.N.N.11110000 255.255.255.240 /28 24 = 16 24 = 16 24 – 2 = 14
N.N.N.11111000 255.255.255.248 /29 25 = 32 23 = 8 23 – 2 = 6
N.N.N.11111100 255.255.255.252 /30 26 = 64 22 = 4 22 – 2 = 2

CLASS B POSSIBLE SUBNET MASKS

Binary (N.N.H.H) Decimal CIDR # Subnets (2x) Block Size (2y) # Hosts (2y - 2)
N.N.00000000.00000000 255.255.0.0 /16 2 =1
0
2 = 65,536
16
216 – 2 = 65,534
N.N.10000000.00000000 255.255.128.0 /17 21 = 2 215 = 32,768 215 – 2 = 32,766
N.N.11000000.00000000 255.255.192.0 /18 22 = 4 214 = 16,384 214 – 2 = 16,382
N.N.11100000.00000000 255.255.224.0 /19 23 = 8 213 = 8,192 213 – 2 = 8,190
N.N.11110000.00000000 255.255.240.0 /20 24 = 16 212 = 4,096 212 – 2 = 4,094
N.N.11111000.00000000 255.255.248.0 /21 25 = 32 211 = 2,048 211 – 2 = 2,046
N.N.11111100.00000000 255.255.252.0 /22 26 = 64 210 = 1,024 210 – 2 = 1,022
N.N.11111110.00000000 255.255.254.0 /23 27 = 128 29 = 512 29 – 2 = 510
N.N.11111111.00000000 255.255.255.0 /24 28 = 256 28 = 256 28 – 2 = 254
N.N.11111111.10000000 255.255.255.128 /25 29 = 512 27 = 128 27 – 2 = 126
N.N.11111111.11000000 255.255.255.192 /26 210 = 1,024 26 = 64 26 – 2 = 62
N.N.11111111.11100000 255.255.255.224 /27 211 = 2,048 25 = 32 25 – 2 = 30
N.N.11111111.11110000 255.255.255.240 /28 212 = 4,096 24 = 16 24 – 2 = 14
N.N.11111111.11111000 255.255.255.248 /29 213 = 8,192 23 = 8 23 – 2 = 6
N.N.11111111.11111100 255.255.255.252 /30 214 = 16,384 22 = 4 22 – 2 = 2
 Subnetting Reference Material

CLASS A POSSIBLE SUBNET MASKS

Binary (N.H.H.H) Decimal CIDR # Subnets (2x) Block Size (2y) # Hosts (2y - 2)
N.00000000.00000000.00000000 255.0.0.0 /8 20 = 1 222 = 16,777,216 222 – 2 = 16,777,214
N.10000000.00000000.00000000 255.128.0.0 /9 21 = 2 223 = 8,388,608 223 – 2 = 8,388,606
N.11000000.00000000.00000000 255.192.0.0 /10 22 = 4 222 = 4,194,304 222 – 2 = 4,194,302
N.11100000.00000000.00000000 255.224.0.0 /11 23 = 8 221 = 2,097,152 221 – 2 = 2,097,150
N.11110000.00000000.00000000 255.240.0.0 /12 24 = 16 220 = 1,048,576 220 – 2 = 1,048,574
N.11111000.00000000.00000000 255.248.0.0 /13 25 = 32 219 = 524,288 219 – 2 = 524,286
N.11111100.00000000.00000000 255.252.0.0 /14 26 = 64 218 = 262,144 218 – 2 = 262,142
N.11111110.00000000.00000000 255.254.0.0 /15 27 = 128 217 = 131,072 217 – 2 = 131,070
N.11111111.00000000.00000000 255.255.0.0 /16 28 = 256 216 = 65,536 216 – 2 = 65,534
N.11111111.10000000.00000000 255.255.128.0 /17 29 = 512 215 = 32,768 215 – 2 = 32,766
N.11111111.11000000.00000000 255.255.192.0 /18 210 = 1,024 214 = 16,384 214 – 2 = 16,382
N.11111111.11100000.00000000 255.255.224.0 /19 211 = 2,048 213 = 8,192 213 – 2 = 8,190
N.11111111.11110000.00000000 255.255.240.0 /20 212 = 4,096 212 = 4,096 212 – 2 = 4,094
N.11111111.11111000.00000000 255.255.248.0 /21 213 = 8,192 211 = 2,048 211 – 2 = 2,046
N.11111111.11111100.00000000 255.255.252.0 /22 214 = 16,384 210 = 1,024 210 – 2 = 1,022
N.11111111.11111110.00000000 255.255.254.0 /23 215 = 32,768 29 = 512 29 – 2 = 510
N.11111111.11111111.00000000 255.255.255.0 /24 216 = 65,536 28 = 256 28 – 2 = 254
N.11111111.11111111.10000000 255.255.255.128 /25 217 = 131,072 27 = 128 27 – 2 = 126
N.11111111.11111111.11000000 255.255.255.192 /26 218 = 262,144 26 = 64 26 – 2 = 62
N.11111111.11111111.11100000 255.255.255.224 /27 219 = 524,288 25 = 32 25 – 2 = 30
N.11111111.11111111.11110000 255.255.255.240 /28 220 = 1,048,576 24 = 16 24 – 2 = 14
N.11111111.11111111.11111000 255.255.255.248 /29 221 = 2,097,152 23 = 8 23 – 2 = 6
N.11111111.11111111.11111100 255.255.255.252 /30 222 = 4,194,304 22 = 4 22 – 2 = 2
 Subnetting a Class C Network
#1
Details & Requirements
You’ve been assigned a 192.168.1.0/24 Class C network, and
you need to create two subnets from it. Subnet #1 #2
How many host bit do we need to borrow? Network Address 192.168.1.0 192.168.1.128
1 host bit, 2 = 2 Subnets
1

First Host IP 192.168.1.1 192.168.1.129

How many host addresses per subnet?
7 host bits left, 27 = 128 Addresses / Subnet Last Host IP 192.168.1.126 192.168.1.254
27 - 2= 126 Addresses / Subnet
Broadcast Address 192.168.1.127 192.168.1.255
What are the valid subnets?
192.168.1.0 and 192.168.1.128
Binary (N.N.N.H) Decimal CIDR # Subnets (2x) Block Size (2y) # Hosts (2y - 2)
N.N.N.00000000 255.255.255.0 /24 20 = 1 28 = 256 28 – 2 = 254
New Subnet Mask? N.N.N.10000000 255.255.255.128 /25 21 = 2 27 = 128 27 – 2 = 126
11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 N.N.N.11000000 255.255.255.192 /26 22 = 4 26 = 64 26 – 2 = 62
255.255.255.128 or /25 N.N.N.11100000 255.255.255.224 /27 23 = 8 25 = 32 25 – 2 = 30
N.N.N.11110000 255.255.255.240 /28 24 = 16 24 = 16 24 – 2 = 14
N.N.N.11111000 255.255.255.248 /29 25 = 32 23 = 8 23 – 2 = 6
N.N.N.11111100 255.255.255.252 /30 26 = 64 22 = 4 22 – 2 = 2
 Visualizing Subnetting a Class C Network #1

Network Simplified View

Network Detailed View

 Subnetting a Class C Network
#2
Details & Requirements
You’ve been assigned a 192.168.1.0/24 Class C network, and Subnet Network /Subnet Host IP Broadcast
you need to create four subnets from it. Address Addresses Address

How many host bit do we need to borrow? 1 192.168.1.0 1 thru 62 192.168.1.63

2 host bits, 22 = 4 Subnets
2 192.168.1.64 65 thru 126 192.168.1.127
How many host addresses per subnet?
6 host bits left, 26 = 64 Addresses / Subnet 3 192.168.1.128 129 thru 190 192.168.1.191
26 - 2= 62 Addresses / Subnet
4 192.168.1.192 193 thru 254 192.168.1.255
What are the valid subnets?
192.168.1.0, 192.168.1.64,
192.168.1.128, 192.168.1.192 Binary (N.N.N.H) Decimal CIDR # Subnets (2x) Block Size (2y) # Hosts (2y - 2)
N.N.N.00000000 255.255.255.0 /24 20 = 1 28 = 256 28 – 2 = 254
N.N.N.10000000 255.255.255.128 /25 21 = 2 27 = 128 27 – 2 = 126
N.N.N.11000000 255.255.255.192 /26 22 = 4 26 = 64 26 – 2 = 62
New Subnet Mask? N.N.N.11100000 255.255.255.224 /27 23 = 8 25 = 32 25 – 2 = 30
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 N.N.N.11110000 255.255.255.240 /28 24 = 16 24 = 16 24 – 2 = 14
N.N.N.11111000 255.255.255.248 /29 25 = 32 23 = 8 23 – 2 = 6
255.255.255.192 or /26
N.N.N.11111100 255.255.255.252 /30 26 = 64 22 = 4 22 – 2 = 2
 Visualizing Subnetting a Class C Network #2

Network Simplified & Detail Views