NETWORK ANALYSIS

AND

SYNTHESIS

AMiT-ECE NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS CHAPTER ONE Friday, June 14, 2024 1
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS

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What are network analysis and synthesis?
• In a generally accepted definition of network analysis and
synthesis, there are three key words:
The excitation,
The network, and
The response as depicted in Fig. 1

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 Cont …
• Network analysis: is concerned with determining the response,
given the excitation and the network.
• In network synthesis: the problem is to design the network
given the excitation and the desired response.
• In this chapter we will outline some of the problems to be
encountered in this book without going into the actual details of
the problems.
• We will also discuss some basic definitions.
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 SIGNAL ANALYSIS
• For electric networks, the excitation and response are given in terms
of voltages and currents which are functions of time, t.
• In general, these functions of time are called signals.
• In describing signals, we use the two universal languages of electrical
engineering
time and
frequency.
• Strictly speaking, a signal is a function of time.
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 Cont …
• However, the signal can be described equally well in terms of spectral
or frequency information.
• Between time and frequency, the translation is effected by the Fourier
series, the Fourier integral, and the Laplace transform.
• Consider the sinusoidal signal:

• where is the amplitude, is the phase shift, and is the angular

frequency as given by the equation:
where T is the period of the sinusoid.
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• The signal is plotted against time in Fig. 2. Cont …
• An equally complete description of the signal is obtained if we let the
angular frequency ω be the independent variable.
• In this case, the signal is described in terms of , and as shown in Fig.
3a, where
amplitude is plotted
against frequency, and
in Fig. 1.3b, where
phase shift is plotted.
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 Cont …
• Now suppose that the signal is made up of 2n + 1 sinusoidal components:

• The spectral description of the signal would

then contain 2n + l lines at
as given in Figs. 4a and b.
• These discrete spectra of amplitude
A versus ω and phase shift  versus ω
are sometimes called line spectra.

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 Cont …
• Consider the case when the number of these spectral lines become infinite and
the intervals between the lines approach zero.
• Then there is no longer any discrimination between
one frequency and another, so that the discrete line
spectra fuse into a continuous spectra, as shown by
the example in Figs. 5a and b.
• In the continuous case, the sum in Eq. above becomes
an integral:

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 Cont …
• where is known as the amplitude spectrum and as the phase
spectrum.
• As we know, periodic signals such as the sine wave in Fig. 2 can be
described in terms of discrete spectra through the use of Fourier
series.
• On the other hand, a non-periodic signal such
as the triangular pulse in Fig. 6 can only be
described in terms of continuous spectra
through the Fourier integral transform.
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 CONCEPT OF COMPLEX FREQUENCY
• As we shall see, the complex frequency variable:

is a generalized frequency variable whose real part describes growth

and decay of the amplitudes of signals, and whose imaginary part is
angular frequency in the usual sense.
• The idea of complex frequency is developed by examining
the cisoidal signal:

when is represented as a rotating phasor, as shown in Fig. 7. 11

 Cont …
• The angular frequency of the phasor can then be thought of as a
velocity at the end of the phasor.
• In particular the velocity is always at right angles to the phasor, as
shown in Fig. 7.
• However, consider the general case when the velocity is inclined at
any arbitrary angle as given in Figs. and . In this case,
if the velocity is given by the symbol , we see that is composed of
a component at right angle to the phasor as well as a component ,
which is parallel to .
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 Cont …
In Fig. , has a component toward the origin. As the phasor spins
in a counter clockwise fashion, the phasor decreases in amplitude.
• The resulting wave for the real and imaginary parts of are damped
sinusoids as given by:

which are shown in Fig. 9 below.

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 .

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 Cont …
• Note that the damped sinusoid has an exponential envelope decay, .
• In Fig. 8b, the phasor is shown with a positive real component of
velocity .
• Therefore, as the phasor spins, the amplitudes of the real and imaginary
parts increase exponentially with an envelope , as shown by in Fig. 10.
• From this discussion, it is apparent that the generalized cisoidal signal:

• describes the growth and decay of the amplitudes in addition to angular

frequency in the usual sense.
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 Cont …
When , the sinusoid is undamped,
When , the signal is an exponential signal, shown in Fig. 11

When , then the signal is a constant .

• Thus we see the versatility of a complex frequency description.

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS
• As mentioned before, the characterization of the excitation and
response signals in time and frequency makes up only part of the
analysis problem.
• The other part consists of characterizing the network itself in terms of
time and frequency, and determining how the network behaves as a
signal processer.
• Let us turn our attention now to a brief study of the properties of
linear networks and the general characteristics of signal processing by
a linear system.
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 BASIC DEFINITIONS
LINEAR: A system (network) is linear if
a) the principle of superposition and
b) the principle of proportionality hold.
• Superposition principle:
if, for a given network, [] and [] are excitation – response pairs, then if
the excitation were

the response would be:

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 Cont …
• Proportionality principle:
if for a given network, [] is excitation – response pairs, then if
the excitation were , the response would be .
Where the constant of proportionality is preserved by the linear
network.

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 Cont …
• The two conditions of linearity are summarized in Figure below.

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 Cont …
• PASSIVE
A linear network is passive if:
a) the energy delivered to the network is nonnegative for any
arbitrary excitation, and
b) if no voltages or currents appear between any two terminals
before an excitation is applied.

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 Cont …
• RECIPROCAL
A network is said to be reciprocal if when the points of excitation and
measurement of response are interchanged, the relationship between
excitation and response remains the same.
Thus must be true for any choice of points of excitation and
response.

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 Cont …
• CAUSAL
We say a system is causal if its response is non – anticipatory, i.e., if

In other words, a system is causal if before an excitation is applied

at , the response is zero for .

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 Cont …
• Time invariant
A system is time invariant if:
implies that
where the symbol means "gives rise to."
To understand the concept of time invariance in a linear system, let us
suppose that initially the excitation is introduced at , which gives rise
to a response .

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 Cont …
If the excitation were introduced at , and if the shape of the response
waveform were the same as in the first case, but delayed by a time
(Figure beside), then we could say the system is time invariant.
• Another way of looking at this concept
is through the fact that time-invariant
systems contain only elements that do
not vary with time.
• It should be mentioned here that linear
systems need not be time invariant.
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 Cont …
• DERIVATIVE PROPERTY:
From the time-invariant property we can show that,
if at the input gives rise to at the
output (Figure below), then, if the input
were , i.e., the derivative of ,
the response would be .

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 The proof is quite simple. Cont …
 Consider an excitation where is a real quantity.
 By the time – invariant property, the response would be .
 Now suppose the excitation were:

then according to the linearity and time-invariant properties, the

response would be:

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 Cont …
• Taking the limit as , we see that:

• We can extend this idea to higher derivatives as well as for the

integrals of and , as shown in Figure above.

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 Ideal model
• Let us now examine some idealized models of linear systems.
• The systems given in the following all have properties which make
them very useful in signal processing.
1) AMPLIFIER:
An amplifier scales up the magnitude of the input, i.e.

where is a constant (Figure below).

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 Cont …
2) DIFFERENTIATOR: The input signal is differentiated and
possibly scaled up or down (Figure below).

3) INTEGRATOR: The output is the integral of the input, as shown in

Figure below.

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4) TIME DELAYER: The output is delayed by an Cont …
amount T, but retains the same wave shape as
the input (Figure below).
Suppose we take the triangular pulse, in Figure below, as the input
signal.
Then the outputs for each of the
four systems just described are
shown in Figures to .

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 IDEAL ELEMENTS
• In the analysis of electric networks, we use idealized linear
mathematical models of physical circuit elements.
• The elements most often encountered are:
the resistor R, given in ohms,
the capacitor C, given in farads, and
the inductor L, expressed in henrys.
• The endpoints of the elements are called terminals.

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 Cont …
• A port is defined as any pair of two terminals into which energy is
supplied or withdrawn or where network variables may be measured
or observed.
• In Figure below we have an example of a two – port network.

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 Cont …
• The energy sources that make up the excitation functions are ideal
current or voltage sources, as shown in Figures and below.

• The polarities indicated for the voltage source and the direction of
flow for the current source are arbitrarily assumed for reference
purposes only.
• An ideal voltage source is an energy source that provides, at a given
port, a voltage signal that is independent of the current at that port.
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 Cont …
• If we interchange the words "current" and "voltage" in the last
definition, we then define an ideal current source.
• In network analysis, the principal problem is to find the relationships
that exist between the currents and voltages at the ports of the
network.
• Certain simple voltage – current relationships for the network
elements also serve as defining equations for the elements
themselves.

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 Cont …
• For example, when the currents and voltages are expressed as
functions of time, then the and elements, shown in Figure below, are
defined by the equations:

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 Cont …
where the constants of integration and are initial conditions to be
discussed in detail later.

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 Cont …
• Expressed as a function of the complex frequency variable, , the
equations defining the and elements, shown in Figure below, are:
(ignoring initial conditions for the moment)

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 Cont …
We see that in the time domain, i.e., where the independent variable
is , the voltage – current relationships are given in terms of
differential equations.
On the other hand, in the complex – frequency domain, the voltage-
current relationships for the elements are expressed in algebraic
equations.
Algebraic equations are, in most cases, more easily solved than
differential equations.

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 Cont …
• When a network is made up of an interconnection of linear circuit
elements, the network is described by its system or transfer function .
• The response and the excitation are related by the equation:

In network analysis, we are given , and we can obtain directly from
the network. Our task is to determine .

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 NETWORK SYNTHESIS
• We will now briefly introduce some of the problems connected to
network synthesis.
• In network synthesis, we are given the response and the excitation ,
and we are required to synthesize the network from the system
function:

• Since and are voltages or currents, then is denoted generally as an

immittance if is a voltage and is a current, or vice versa.

Friday, June 14, 2024 41

 Cont …
• A driving-point immittance is defined to be a function for which the
variables are measured at the same port.
• Thus a driving – point impedance at a given port is the function:

where the excitation is a current and the

response is a voltage , as shown in Figure
beside.

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 Cont …
• When we interchange the words "current" and "voltage" in the last
definition, we then have a driving – point admittance.
• An example of a driving – point impedance is the network in Figure
above, where:

• Now suppose the resistor in previous Figure were enclosed in a

“black box”.
• We have no access to this black box, except at the terminals in Figure
below.
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 Cont …
• Our task is to determine the network in the black box.
• Suppose we are given the information that, for a given excitation , the
voltage response is proportional to by the equation:

An obvious solution, though not unique, is that the network consists
of a resistor of value .

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 Cont …
• Suppose next that the excitation is a voltage , the response is a current
, and that:

Our task is to synthesize a network equivalent to the network in the

black box.
From a close inspection of the driving – point admittance , we see
that a possible solution might consist of a resistor of
in parallel with a capacitor of 4 farads, as seen in Figure.

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 Cont …
• The problem of driving – point synthesis, as shown from the
examples just given, consists of decomposing a given immittance
function into basic recognizable parts (such as 3 + 4s).
• Before we proceed with the mechanics of decomposition, we must
first determine whether the function is realizable, i.e., can it be
synthesized in terms of positive resistances, inductances, and
capacitances?
• It will be shown that realizable driving point immittances belong to a
class of functions known as positive real or, simply, p.r. functions.
• From the properties of p.r. functions, we can test a given driving-point
Friday, June 14, 2024 46

function for realizability.

 Cont …
• With a knowledge of p.r. functions, we then go on to examine special
driving – point functions.
• These include functions which can be realized with two kinds of
elements only: the L – C, R – C, and R – L immittances.
• Next we proceed to the synthesis of transfer functions.
• A transfer function or transmittance is a system function for which the
variables are measured at different ports.

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 Cont …
• There are many different forms which a transfer function might take.
For example, consider the two-port network in Figure below.

• If the excitation is and the response

, the transfer function is a transfer impedance:

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 Cont …
• On the other hand, if were the excitation and the response, then we
would have a voltage – ratio transfer function

• As for driving – point functions, there are certain properties which a

transfer function must satisfy in order to be realizable.
• We shall study these realizability conditions and then proceed to the
synthesis of some simple transfer functions.

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 Cont …
• The most important aspect of transfer function synthesis is filter
design.
• A filter is defined as a network which passes a certain portion of a
frequency spectrum and blocks the remainder of the spectrum.
• By the term "blocking," we imply that the magnitude response of the
filter is approximately zero for that frequency range.
• Thus, an ideal low-pass filter is a network which passes all
frequencies up to a cutoff frequency , and blocks all frequencies
above , as shown in Figure below.
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 Cont …

• One aspect of filter design is to synthesize the network from the

transfer function H(s).
• The other aspect deals with the problem of obtaining a realizable
transmittance H(s) given the specification of, for example, the
magnitude characteristic in previous Figure.
• This part of the synthesis is generally referred to as the approximation
problem.
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 Cont …
• Why the word "approximation?"
• Because frequency response characteristics of the and elements are
continuous (with the exception of isolated points called resonance
points), a network containing these elements cannot be made to cut off
abruptly at in Fig. 1.29.
• Instead, we can realize low – pass filters which have the magnitude
characteristics of Figure below.

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 Cont …
• In connection with the filter design problems, we will discuss certain
problems in magnitude and frequency normalization so that, in
designing a filter, we deal with element values such as and instead of
“practical” element values of, for example, and .
• Also we will study a method whereby low – pass filter designs might
be transformed into high – pass, band – pass, and band elimination
filters.
• The mathematical basis of this method is called frequency
transformation.
AMiT-ECE NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS CHAPTER ONE Friday, June 14, 2024 53
 Network Theorems
To analyze (Determine the output) a network, we may use one or
more of the following mathematical tools (or network theorems).
1) Ohm’s Law 5) Maximum Power Transfer
2) Kirchhoff’s Law (K-Law) Theorem

3) Superposition Theorem 6) Milliman’s Theorem

4) Thevenin’s and Norton's 7) Telligen’s Theorem
Theorem 8) Substitution Theorem

AMiT-ECE NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS CHAPTER ONE Friday, June 14, 2024 54
EXERCISE: Find current in 4Ω resistor

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