Solutions

Class XII
• Calculate the mass percentage of C6H6 and
CCl4 if 22g of C6H6 is dissolved in 122g of CCl4.
Mole Fraction (X)
Calculate the mole fraction of C2H6O2 in a
solution containing 20% of C2H6O2 y mass.
 What is the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol (C2H5OH)
solution whose density is 0.927 g/mL?
moles of solute moles of solute
m = M =
mass of solvent (kg) liters of solution

Assume 1 L of solution:
5.86 moles ethanol = 270 g ethanol
927 g of solution (1000 mL x 0.927 g/mL)
mass of solvent = mass of solution – mass of solute
= 927 g – 270 g = 657 g = 0.657 kg

moles of solute 5.86 moles C2H5OH

m = = = 8.92 m
mass of solvent (kg) 0.657 kg solvent

2.8
A solution is a homogenous mixture of 2 or
more substances

The solute is(are) the substance(s) present in the

smaller amount(s)

The solvent is the substance present in the larger

amount

21
An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in
water, results in a solution that can conduct electricity.
A nonelectrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved,
results in a solution that does not conduct electricity.

nonelectrolyte weak electrolyte strong electrolyte

2.2
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of a
solute that will dissolve in a given solvent at a specific
temperature.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the
solvent has the capacity to dissolve at a specific
temperature.
A supersaturated solution contains more solute than is
present in a saturated solution at a specific temperature.
Sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a seed crystal is
added to a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate.

2.3
Solubility
Three types of interactions in the solution process:
• solvent-solvent interaction
• solute-solute interaction
• solvent-solute interaction

DHsoln = DH1 + DH2 + DH3 2.4

Two substances with similar intermolecular forces are likely
to be soluble in each other.

• non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar solvents

CCl4 in C6H6
• polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents
C2H5OH in H2O
• ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents
NaCl in H2O or NH3 (l)

2.5
 Temperature and Solubility
Solid solubility and temperature

increasing temperature
solubility increases with
increasing temperature

2.9
 Temperature and Solubility
Gas solubility and temperature

solubility usually
decreases with
increasing temperature

2.10
 Solubility of a gas in a liquid:

• The solubility of a gas in a liquid solvent

mainly depends upon both temperature and
pressure.
• The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases
with increase in temperature.
• The solubility of a gas in a liquid increases with
increase in pressure.
 Pressure and Solubility of Gases
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the
pressure of the gas over the solution (Henry’s law).
c is the concentration (M) of the dissolved gas
c = kP P is the pressure of the gas over the solution
k is a constant (mol/L•atm) that depends only
on temperature

low P high P

low c high c
2.11
• Applications:
• Aquatic animals are more comfortable in cold water rather than
in warm water because cold water contains more amount of
dissolved oxygen. ( solubility varies inversely with temp.)
• Soda bottles are sealed under high pressure, to increase the
solubility of CO2 gas in soft drinks / soda water.( solubility α
pressure)
• The oxygen tanks used by scuba divers are diluted with helium
to avoid a medical condition known as bends.
• People living at high altitudes suffer with a medical condition
anoxia due to low solubility of oxygen in blood.
 Vapour pressure
• The pressure exerted by vapour of a liquid at
its equilibrium state is known as vapour
pressure.
• The vapour pressure of a liquid increases with
increase in temperature and decreases with
increase in pressure.
Raoult’s law for solutions containing
volatile solutes:
Raoult’s law for solution containing non-
volatile solute:
Liquid-liquid solutions can be classified into Ideal and non-ideal
solutions on basis of Raoult’s law.
Ideal solutions:
• The solutions which obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of
concentration are known as ideal solutions.
• In case of ideal solutions, the intermolecular forces between
solute-solute, solvent-solvent and solute-solvent are nearly same.
• For ideal solutions; H mix  0 and Vmix  0

Examples: Solution of (a) n-Hexane and n-Heptane

(b) Benzene and toluene
(c) Bromoethane and chloroethane
Non-ideal solutions:

• The solutions which does not obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of

concentration are known as non-ideal solutions.

• Incase of non-ideal solutions, the interactions between solute- solute and solvent-

solvent is not equal to that of solute-solvent.

• For non-ideal solutions; H mix  0 and Vmix  0

• In such solutions, the vapour pressure is either higher or lower than that

predicted by Raoult’s law.

• It the vapour pressure is higher, then the solution shows positive deviation.

• It the vapour pressure is lower, then the solution shows negative deviation.

• So, non-ideal solutions are further classified into two types.

• Positive deviation:

• The non-ideal solutions in which the intermolecular attractive

forces between solute-solvent molecules are weaker than that of
solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules show positive
deviation from Raoult’s law.
• Incase of positive deviation, the vapour pressure of the solution is
always higher than that predicted from Raoult’s law.

• Examples: Mixture of (a) Ethanol and Acetone (b) CS2 and Acetone
• Negative deviation:

• The non-ideal solutions in which the intermolecular attractive forces

between solute-solvent molecules are stronger than that of solute-
solute and solvent-solvent molecules show negative deviation from
Raoult’s law.
• Incase of negative deviation, the vapour pressure of the solution is
always lower than that predicted from Raoult’s law.
• Examples: Mixture of (a) Phenol and Aniline (b) Chloroform and
Acetone
Azeotropes:
• The binary solutions having same composition in liquid and
vapour phase which boil at a constant temperature and cannot
be separated by fractional distillation are known as
azeotropes.
Minimum boiling Azeotrope:
• The binary solutions which show a large positive deviation
from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azetrope at a specific
composition.
• Examples: Ethanol (95%) and Water (5%) mixture.
Maximum boiling Azeotrope:
• The binary solutions which show a large negative deviation
from Raoult’s law form maximum boiling azetrope at a specific
composition.
• Examples: Nitric acid (68%) and Water (32%) mixture.
Colligative properties and determination of
molar mass
• The properties which depends upon the number of solute particles
present in the solution are known as colligative properties.
• There are four types of colligative properties mainly observed. i.e.

(a) Relative lowering in vapour pressure

(b) Elevation of boiling point

(c) Depression of freezing point

(d) Osmotic pressure

Special Note:
P0–Ps = lowering in vapour pressure of the solution
( P0–Ps) / P0 = Relative lowering in vapour pressure
of the solution

Tb = Boiling temperature of solution

Tb0 = Boiling temperature of pure solvent

Determination of molar mass from Relative
lowering in vapour pressure
Determination of molar mass from
Elevation of Boiling point:
Determination of molar mass from Depression
of Freezing point:
Determination of molar mass from Osmotic
pressure:
• The excess pressure which must be applied on
the solution side just to stop the flow of pure
solvent towards the solution side when both
are separated by a semi permeable membrane
is called osmotic pressure.
• Osmosis:
The spontaneous flow of solvent molecules towards the
solution side when both are separated by a semi
permeable membrane is called osmosis.

• Osmotic pressure:
The excess pressure which must be applied on the solution
side in order to stop osmosis process (the flow of solvent
towards the solution side when both are separated by a
semi permeable membrane) is known as osmotic
pressure.
• Reverse osmosis:
When a pressure larger than osmotic pressure is applied on the
solution side then pure solvent flows out of the solution through the
semi permeable membrane. This process is called reverse osmosis.

• Isotonic solutions:
Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature
are called isotonic solutions. Between such solutions no osmosis
occurs.
out of two, if one solution have higher osmotic pressure then it is
called hypertonic solution and the other solution is called hypotonic
solution.
• Abnormal molar mass:

The molar mass calculated on the basis of colligative

properties (such as elevation of boiling point,
depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure or
relative lowering in vapour pressure) is either lower
or higher than the normal value is called as abnormal
molar mass.