CLASS XII

CHAPTER – 2 SOLUTIONS

Solutions are homogeneousmixtures of two or more than two substances.

Binary solution is a solution which consists of two components.
A solution may be classified as solid, liquid or gaseous solution.

Terms to express the concentration of a solution

1 Mass percentage Mass of solute per 100 g of solution.

2 Molarity No of moles of solute in one litre of solution.

M = WB x 1000
MB x V
WB - Mass of solute (g)
V – Volume of solution (mL)
MB – Molar mass of solute(gmol-1 )

3 Molality No of moles of solute in one kg of solvent.

m = WB x 1000
MB x WA
WB - Mass of solute (g)
WA – Mass of solvent (g)
MB – Molar mass of solute (gmol-1 )

4 Mole fraction Ratio of no of moles of a component to the total no of moles

of solution

5 Parts per million Number of parts of the component in 106 parts of solution

Solubility
Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent
at a specified temperature or pressure (in the case of gaseous solutes)
Solubility of a solid in a liquid
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of
solvent at a particular temperature. The concentration of solute in such a solution is its solubility.
Effect of temperature
∙ If the dissolution process is exothermic, the solubility decreases with increase in temperature ∙
If the dissolution process is endothermic, the solubility increases with increase in temperature
Effect of pressure
∙ No significant effect as solids are highly incompressible
Solubility of a gas in a liquid
HENRY’S LAW
Statement Partial pressure of a gas in vapour phase is directly proportional to
the mole fraction of the gas in the solution.

Mathematical p = KHx , p = pressure ofthegas x = mole fraction of gas insolution

expression KH = Henry’s law constant
 Relation KH is inversely proportional to solubility of the gas
between
KH&x

Applications i) To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks , the bottles are
sealed under highpressure
ii) Scuba divers carry cylinders filled with air diluted with
helium.Otherwisehigh concentration of N2 in blood can cause‘bends’. ii)
At high altitudes due to low pressure ,there is less oxygen in the blood
and people suffer from anoxia.

Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in temperature, because dissolution of gas in a
liquid is an exothermic process.
Raoult’s Law : For a solution of volatile liquids , the partial vapour pressure of each
component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
pA = p0Ax A , pB = p0Bx B
where p0A - Vapour pressure of pure A, p0B - Vapour pressure of pure B
ptotal = pA + pB
Mole fraction of the components in vapour phase is given by
yA= pA/ptotal, yB=pB/ptotal

Raoult’s law as a special case of Henry’s law

Henry’s law, p =KHx Raoult’ts Law - pA = p0AxA
Raoult’s law becomes as a special case of Henry’s law in which KH becomes equal to pAo
Ideal solutions are the solutions which obey Raoult’s law over entire range of concentration, A
- B interactions are similar to that of A- A or B- B interactions,∆mixH& ∆mixV = 0 Eg :- benzene
& toluene , n-hexane & n-heptane

Non ideal solutions with components A & B

Showing positive deviation Showing negative deviation

A - B interactions are weaker than A- A A - B interactions are stronger than A- A

or B- B interactions & B- B interactions

∆ mixH> 0 , ∆ mixV> 0 ∆ mixH< 0 , ∆ mixV< 0

Examples : CS2& Acetone , Ethanol & water Chloroform & acetone , Nitric acid & water

Graphipal Representation of ideal and non-ideal solutions

Azeotropes
Azeotropes are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil
at a constant temperature.
Minimum boiling azeotropes– These are solutions that show a large positive deviation from
Raoult’s law. Eg – Ethanol and water mixture (95% by volume).
Maximum boiling azeotropes – These are solutions that show large negative deviation
from Raoult’s law. Eg- Nitric acid and water mixture (68 % by mass).
Colligative properties are the properties that depend on the number of solute particles
irrespective of their nature relative to the total number of particles present in the solution.
1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
In a solution with non-volatile solute, the surface has both solute and solvent molecules; thereby
the fraction of the surface covered by the solvent molecules gets reduced. Consequently, the
number of solvent molecules escaping from the surface is correspondingly reduced, thus, the
vapour pressure is also reduced.The decrease in the vapour pressure of solvent depends on the
quantity of non-volatile solute present in the solution, irrespective of its nature.

Thus, relative lowering of vapour pressure is equal to the mole fraction of non-volatile solute.

2. Elevation in boilingpoint
The vapour pressure of the solvent is depressed by the presence of a non volatile solute. So it must
be heated to a higher temperature to make the vapour pressure equal 1 atm
 ∆T b = Kbm = Kb x WB x 1000 / MB xW A
Kb – Molal elevation constant
Tb = T0b + ∆T b
Tb -b.pt of the solution,T0b -b.pt of pure solvent, ∆T b –Elevation in b.pt
3. Depression in freezingpoint
A solution freezes when its vapour pressure equals the vapour pressure of the pure solid solvent.
When a non-volatile solid is added to the solvent its vapour pressure decreases and now it would
become equal to that of solid solvent at lower temperature. Thus, the freezing point of the solvent
decreases.

∆T f = Kf m = Kf x WB x 1000 / MB xWA
Kf– Molal depression constant
Tf = T0f - ∆T f
Tf -f.pt of the solution,T0f -f.pt of pure solvent, ∆Tf–depression in f.pt
4.Osmotic pressure (∏)
When solvent & solution are separated by a semipermeable membrane, solvent molecules
flow through the membrane from pure solvent to the solution.This process is called
osmosis.
The excess pressure applied to a solution that just stops the flow of solvent through a
semipermeable membrane is called osmotic pressure.
∏ = C RT, ∏ V= nBRT , ∏ V= WBRT / MB
Advantages of osmotic pressure method in determining molar mass of solutes:
i) Osmotic pressure is measured at roomtemperature
ii) Molarity is used instead ofmolality
iii) Magnitude of osmotic pressure is large even for very dilutesolutions.
iv)This method is particularly used for biomolecules as they are generally not stable at
higher temperatures and polymers have poorsolubility.
Isotonic solutions
Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature separated by a semipermeable
membrane are termed as isotonic solutions.
Hypertonic solution
A solution which has higher osmotic pressure than the other solution separated by a
semipermeable membrane is called hypertonic solution.
Hypotonic solution
A solution which has lower osmotic pressure than the other solution separated by a
semipermeable membrane is called hypotonic solution.
Reverse osmosis – If a pressure larger than osmotic pressure is applied to solution, then the
direction of motion of solvent molecules is reversed. It now flows from solution to solvent.
Application: Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea water.
Abnormal molar masses are obtained whenever a solute undergoes dissociation or association In
1880 van’t Hoff introduced a factor i, known as the van’t Hoff factor, to account for the extent of
dissociation or association.

Modified formulas
p0A – pA /p0A = i xB ∆T b = i Kb m ∆T f = i Kf m ∏ =i C RT
1
Value of i
Solute undergoes neither Solute undergoes Solute undergoes association
dissociation nor dissociation
association

i =1 i>1 i<1

Degree of dissociation Degree of association

Value of n - NaCl -2Al2(SO4)3 -5 Value of nCH3COOH in benzene -2

Prepared by VasanthaJeyapaul, PGT Chemistry KV IISc, Bengaluru