Technical Writing

DR. SHYAMLEE SOLANKI

Objectives
You need to be able to:
• Know differences between academic and technical writing.
• Know what a report is and how important it is in the professional
arena
• Understand various aspects of a business report including its
features and different types
• Learn how to write various types of reports effectively with correct
and conventional methods
• Learn how to collect data for reports
• Discern and develop an effective style for writing reports
• Identify the components of good formats .
• Identify the steps in organizing and writing reports.
Academic vs. Technical
Writing
Academic Technical
Purpose: Demonstrate what you know Getting something done
about a topic
Less than teacher who is More than the reader
Knowledge of
evaluating them
Topic:

Audience: Teacher Several People, Technical

Criteria for Depth, logic, clarity, unity and Non Technical
Evaluation: and grammar Clear and simple
organization of ideas
Objectivity
What is Technical Writing
(really)?
“Technical writing conveys specific information about a
technical subject to a specific audience for a specific
purpose…The words and graphics of technical writing are
meant to be practical: that is, to communicate a body of
factual information that will help an audience understand a
subject or carry out a task.”

- Michael H. Markel
Director of Technical Communication, Boise State University
Types of Technical
Reports/Communication
Examples are:
• Annual Report
• Books
• Computer Hardware Guides
• Magazines
• Newsletters
• Organizational Manuals
• Scholarly Articles/Journals
• Software Guides
• Technical Reports
• Technical Proposals
• Research Papers
Reasons for writing reports

 To present a record of accomplished task.

 To record an experiment.
 To record research findings or technical specifications
 To document schedules, timetables, and milestones.
 To document current status
 To record and clarify complex information for future
reference
 To present information to a large number of people
 To present organized information on a particular topic
 To recommend actions that can be considered in solving
certain problems.
Report Meaning
 Word Report is derived from the Latin word
REPORTARE which means to carry back
 RE = BACK
 PORTARE = TO CARRY
 Report is a description of an event carried
back to someone who was not present on the
scene.
 It is a formal statement of facts presented
for the attention of someone seeking
information.
Definition 1

 Reports are written accounts of proceedings

of events, or statements containing
information or data about an issue or a
project and may not be accompanied by an
analysis or a recommendation.
Definition 2 (BACIE)

A document in which a given

problem is examined for the
purpose of conveying
information, putting forward
ideas and sometimes making
recommendations.
Definition: 3

A report is a formal communication

written for a specific purpose,
conveying authentic information to a
well defined audience in a completely
impartial and objective manner and
containing recommendations if
required.
Definition:4 Lesikar and Petit
A business report is an orderly and objective
communication of factual information that serves
some business purpose.

MEENAKSHI AND RAMAN: 4

A report is usually a piece of factual writing based on
evidence, containing organized information on a
particular topic and/or analysis of that particular topic.
It is formal in nature and is written for a specific
purpose and audience. It discusses the topic in depth
and contains conclusions and recommendations if
required.
Characteristics of Business Report

 Orderly
 Objective
 Communication
 Factual information
 Business report
Characteristics of a good report

Objective

Logical
formatting Accurate

Good Report

Comprehensive Complete
OBJECTIVES:

 To give adequate and accurate

information
 To analyze and process information
 To summarize the given information
concisely and comprehensively
 To advice, inform and sometimes to
persuade
Qualities of a good report

 Comprehensive
 Concise
 Objectivity
 Reader- oriented
 Formatting technique
Comprehensive:

 Detailed and comprehensive

 Complete picture
 All relevant information included
 Practice Brevity
 Answer all questions
 Include everything yet be brief.
Conciseness:

 Not long drawn out

 Simple and direct
 All 7 C’s of communication
 Terse, direct and informative
 Not decorative or emotive
 No poetic embellishment
 Grammatically accurate
 Avoid verbosity
Objectivity

 Substance and style

 Keep one’s personality out of it
 Impersonal
 Factual research
 Interpretation neutral , fair and ethical
 Interpretations conclusion and recommendations if
included should be labeled as opinions or facts.
 Objectivity is the basis of believability.
 Interpreting facts requires not only analytical skills and
objective judgement but consideration for ethical issues
as well.
Reader- Oriented

 Fitting the message for the audience

 Audience adaptation in terms of
words language and concepts
 Audience background
 Knowledge level
 Tone and style to fit the audience
Formatting technique

 Proper format
 Headings and subheadings
 Systematic
 Logical
 Signposts
Importance of Report Writing:

 75% of time spent by managers on reading or

writing a report
 Basic form for decision making
 It is the raw material and equipment of a
successful business house
 Planning, evaluating men and material resources
possible by reports
 It is a discipline which has an intrinsic value
 Trains people in planned and orderly procedures.
Continued….

 Only tangible product of an engineer

 Presents his investigations and testing
 Reveals gaps in reasoning
 Spotlights wooly thinking
 Identifies digression
 Important means of information dissemination
within and outside the organization
 Develops power of discrimination,
organization, judgment and communication
 Types of reports ( Based on Format)

Reports

Oral Written
Solicited

Formal Informal
Informatio Routine unsolicited
Interpretive Letter Memorandu
nal m
Routine reports:

 Progress report
 Laboratory report
 Periodic report
 Inspection report
 Inventory report
 Accident report
 Annual confidential report
Based on content and purpose

 Informational report
 Feasibility report
 Analytical report
 Survey report
 Current event report
 Investigative report
Types of reports

Statutory report Non statutory report

 A report prepared and  This type of report helps in
presented according to the the smooth functioning of
form and procedure laid the organisation and helps
down by law. management in laying
 Example: auditor’s report down policies and
procedures.
Types of reports

Individual report Committee report

 In the form of memo or  Signed by the
letter chairman
 Reports related to work  Formal in style
in their own  Prepared after a
departments cautious deliberation
of the members
Formal report:

 Formal reports vary according to their

purpose and contents , and different
organizations have different ways of
classifying them.
 Some classify them according to their source
or frequency of appearance
 Some organisations classify by the length of
the report or degree of formality or their
physical form.
Formal reports

Informational report:
a) Provides bare information
b) Present information in a factual organised, manner.
c) Collect data arrange and write in appropriate manner
d) Presents situation as it is and not as it should be
e) Writer does not analyse the information
f) No conclusion and no recommendation
g) It usually documents a completed task
Eg. Inspection report, trip report, and report on daily
operations and regulations, company policies.
Interpretive reports

a) Also known as analytical or investigative

report
b) Contains facts with evaluation and analysis
c) It may contain recommendations for action
d) It involves three stages
1. identification of problem
2. analysis and interpretation
3. conclusion and suggesting alternatives.
Routine report

a) Usually written on a prescribed form

b) Records routine matters
c) Presented at regular intervals
d) These can be informative or analytical in
nature
Eg. Inspection report, lab report, progress
report , periodic report,
Informal reports

Letter report Memo report

 Used for internal
 It presents technical/
communication
business information  Helps in making decisions
as well as problems in  Shorter than letter report
the format of business  Written on company’s letter
letters. head.
 Salutation and
complimentary close not
required.
 Just signed or initialed at the
end
Contents of a report

 Authority
 Terms of reference
 Procedure
 Findings
 Conclusion
 Recommendations
AUTHORITY

 The authority under which the report is being

written is mentioned first. an individual
submitting a report must mention the person
or resolution by which he is authorized to
write the report. committees and sub-
committee’s mention the resolution of the
board of directors.
TERMS OF REFERENCE

 Subject covered by the report, Who? What?,

the objectives and purpose of the reports, the
position of the person compiling the report.
 This tells what aspects are to be covered by
the report and helps the report writer to focus
their attention on the main issue.
PROCEDURE

 Methods of collecting data; how and when

they visited different places, whom they met?
Surveys; interviews; research; questionnaires;
experiments; observation; reference material;
meetings’ group discussion; examination of
records.
FINDINGS

 Most important to least important

 In informational report and least to
most important in interpretive reports.
 These are the summarized statements
of data collected facts and information
collected.
CONCLUSION

 Summarization of compiled facts

 Nothing new to be added
 Just an objective summary of the facts and
findings.
RECOMMENDATIONS

 On best course of action to be followed.

 Here the real skill and intelligence of the
report writer is revealed.
 Recommendations should be feasible in
nature.

 Director’s report will not contain Authority

and Terms of Reference or cash flow report.
Advice for avoiding human error in
interpreting data
 Report the fact as they are
 Do not think that conclusions are always necessary
 Do not interpret a lack of evidence as proof to the
contrary
 Do not compare incomparable data
 Do not draw illogical cause-effect conclusions
 Beware of unreliable and unrepresentative data
 Do not oversimplify
 Tailor your claims to your data.
Some characteristics of
reports
1. Everybody hates to write them,
2. Everybody hates to read them,
3. Almost nobody does read them,
4. They take a HUGE amount of time to write,
They are absolutely CRUCIAL to YOUR success in
engineering! They are also almost always:

6. Too long,
7. Badly organized,
8. Incomplete.
BOOK REPORT
Preparatory steps for writing report

 Understanding and defining the

purpose and scope of the report
 Determining the audience
 Collecting data
 Organising the material
 Making an outline
PURPOSE AND SCOPE

 Purpose : The objective of your study.

 Scope: Extent of coverage.
 Identify the problem
 Suggest remedial measures
 It is the purpose of the report that enables us to
decide the amount or method of data to be
collected, the quality and quantity of information
to be included in the report, the methodology
adopted in analyzing the situation and arriving at
a solution.
Determine the audience

 Audience is the most important consideration in

planning, writing and reviewing a document.
 Adapt your writing to meet the needs interests
and background of the readers
 Audience to be categorised in three categories
1. Experts
2. Executives
3. Non-specialist
Collecting Data

1. Searching Library material, internal

records, or databases
2. Personal observation
3. Conducting personal or telephone
interviews
4. Preparing and circulating
questionnaire
Library search: Internal records

 Check does the source have a reputation

 Is the source potentially biased
 Is the material current and complete
Database search
Choose appropriate database
Use multiple search engines
Use keywords and phrases
Use appropriate order and search
operators.
Personal observation

 It is seeing with a purpose

 Be focused on what to observe
 Be objective and unbiased
 Do not rely entirely on your memory
 Carry paper and pen to make notes
 Note down all observations on the spot
 Make a distinction what you have seen and
what is your interpretation.
 Check the accuracy of the facts.
Interviews:

 To gather facts or subjective data such as

attitudes, preferences, opinions, tastes or
emotional reactions

 To determine facts known to a single

individual or group of people

 To substantiate the data collected through

other sources.
Questionnaires:

 Best method to collect the data

 This is primary information through surveys
 Helps to collect data from a larger number of
people
 Helps to gather opinions and attitudes
 Helps to collect facts
Types of questions

 Open- ended questions

 Direct open ended
questions
 Close ended questions
 Restatement questions
Questions: Open ended
 These questions offer an opinion not just
YES /No answer, here you learn the reason
behind the decision.
 E.G. What do you think are the major reasons
for employee unrest?
 Direct Open Ended : This gives the
interviewee some freedom but gives the
interviewer more control.
 E.G. What is your role in bringing back
normalcy among employees?
Contd.

 Close Ended Questions: just YES/ NO answer,

gives specific information, saves time,
eliminates bias and prejudice.
 E.G. Do you think the employees unrest will
continue for a week?
 Restatement Questions: Helps the respondent
to expand on his answers.
 E.G. You said that the union leader would be
meeting the employees this evening, is the
information correct?
Tips for conducting interviews

 Get an appointment
 Be clear with your purpose
 Carry pen notepad and recording accessories
 Get prior permission for recording
 Prepare a list of questions at least 20 questions
for a 30 minute interview
 Sequence the questions
 Visualize your opening and last question well
 Dress appropriately
Conducting an Interview

 Briefly explain the purpose

 Exhibit active listening
 Be accurate in recording
 Don’t enter into an argument
 Assume a subordinate position
 Avoid too many interruptions
 Be tactful
 Be flexible
 Don’t get unnerved
Contd…..

 Finish in time assure confidentiality

 Avoid embarrassing questions
 Thank the respondent
 Keep the lines of communication open.
 If telephonic interview modulate your voice
well.
 Ask for repetition to seek clarification
 Avoid parallel talking
Guidelines for preparing
questionnaire
 Ask relevant questions only
 Provide clear instructions to fill the
questionnaire
 Keep the questionnaire short and easy to
answer.
 Formulate questions that provide easily
tabulated or analyzed answers
 Avoid leading questions
 Ask only one question at a time
questionnaire

 Pre-test the questionnaire

 Do not ask for specific details ask for range
 if mailing a questionnaire attach a covering
letter.
 For opinion based questions provide space
 Provide brackets for tick marks
 Make the questionnaire simple and enjoyable
Organizing the material

 Order of occurrence ( chronological)

 Order of importance ( ascending or
descending order)
 Combination of order.
Making an outline

 It is a mechanical framework into which you

can fit in bits and pieces of information you
have collected
 It serves as a signpost to show you the right
direction in which you need to proceed writing.
 Outline gives the report organization and
structure.
 It indicates the main topics and sub-topics of
the report in nouns and phrases
Making an outline

 Go through the entire material you have

gathered and think of possible organizational
patterns
 Choose one pattern and jot down the topics and
sub-topics as they come to you.
 Arrange them
 Prepare a tentative outline, demarcating the
material that could go under each topic and sub-
topic
 Write out neatly the final outline.
Sample outline
Education system in India
1. Introduction
2. Status before Independence
3. Present status
3.1. school education
3.1.1. primary
3.1.2. secondary
3.1.3. Higher Secondary
3.2. College Education
3.3. University education
4. Status of women’s education
5. Merits and demerits
Theory Book report

 Front matter or also

known as prefatory part
 Main body
 Back Matter
Front matter (structure of a
report)
 Cover page
 Frontispiece
 Title page
 Copyright notice
 Forwarding letter
 Preface
 Acknowledgements
 Table of Contents
 List of illustration
 Abstract/ Summary
Main Body

 Introduction
 Discussion or description
 Conclusion
 Recommendations
Back Matter

 Appendix/ Appendices
 List of References
 Bibliography
 Glossary
 Index
Order of writing:
 Bibliography
 List of references
 Methodology
 Discussion or description
 Conclusion
 Recommendations
 Appendices
 Introduction
 Preface
 Summary / abstract
 Glossary
 Table of contents
 List of illustrations.
Cover Page:

 Usually made of white or soft neutral colored card. It

protects the manuscript from damage and gives the
report neat appearance. It includes
 Complete name of college
 Title of the report
 Its number if any
 Date
 Classification if any
 The authority for whom the report is written.
 Leave one and half inch margin on all sides and align
the matter properly.
Frontispiece:

 It is the window display that ignites the

curiosity of the reader.
 The forms most often used for the purpose
are photographs, maps, artistic drawings,
collage etc.
 It is on the backside of the cover page
 Should reflect the contents of the report
Title Page:

 It is the first hand page of your report

 More or less similar to the cover page
 It has additional information too like
1. subtitle
2. Name of the author
3. Name of the authority
4. Project number
5. Approvals and distribution list
6. Leave 1 inch margin on 3 sides and one and a half
inch on left side
Copyright Notice:

 It is an optional part
 If published then it is to be added.
 Usually written as (C) 2013 XYZ
 Or a note is added:

All rights reserved. No part of this report

may be produced in any form or by any
means without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Forwarding Letter or Letter of
transmittal
 There are two types of forwarding letters introductory
and covering
 It conveys the report to your audience
 Serves the same purpose as the preface in a published
document. It contains
 Objectives/ terms of reference
 Scope
 Methodology adopted
 Highlights of your analysis
 Important results
 Significance of your study
Preface:

 Preface introduces the report and offers it to

the reader
 It contains almost all information which is
there in letter of transmittal.
 It seeks to help the reader appreciate and
understand the report.
 Preface is written by the author himself.
It contains…..
Preface:

 Factors that led you to the report

 Organisation of the report
 Highlights ( important observations and
findings)
 Significance
 How your report would enable readers in
further study and research
 How best your study would help them.
Acknowledgements

 Mention diligently the names of persons organizations

that have helped you in the production of the report
 This is a list of persons who you would like to thank for
their advice, support, assistance
 While writing acknowledgements remember the
following guidelines
 Categorize your audience: courtesy, assistance, real
help, support,
 Avoid listing names
 Divide the contents into paragraphs.
Table of Contents:

 Table of contents is necessary for a

report for more than 10 pages.
 Contents are compiled from the
headings and sub- headings.
 Sub- headings beyond the third order
are excluded
 Check the page numbers carefully.
Outline:
 Use words and phrases
 Use nouns where ever possible
 Use parallel grammatical construction
 Follow the principle of coordination and
subordination
 Use decimal numbering system
 Table of contents is the Outline
 Topic headings and talking headings adopt
any one
Tips for Preparing Table of
Contents
 Leave a 1.50” margin on the left and a 1” margin
on the right, top, and the bottom.
 Write ‘ Table of Contents’ on the top centre in
capitals and underscore
 Leave 3 or 4 spaces and then type the first
heading flush left.
 Leave 2 spaces between headings and one space
between sub headings.
 Indent second-order headings four spaces and
third order headings 8 spaces.
List of Illustrations:

 Used for tables and figures.

 Immediately after table of contents
 Layout as table of contents
 Number, title and page reference
 If the number is large more than 10 divide
them in to 2 parts list of tables and list of
figures.
Abstract/ Summary

 A synopsis is called an abstract or a summary.

 It helps the reader to gather information of the
topic without going through the whole report.
 It should be self sufficient and intelligible
without reference to any part of the report.
 For long reports both are required
 Prepare an abstract/ summary only by
referring to the outline of the report without
getting entangled with the text.
Abstract / Summary

 Essence of the report.  Entire report in a nutshell.

 5-10% of the report .
 2-5% of the report
 Meant for all members
 More relevant in  Information is both
specialist to specialist qualitative and quantitative.
communication.  Does not include
 Information is illustrations and
explanations.
qualitative.
 Includes method of analysis,
 Reader gets an extent significant findings,
of coverage through important conclusion and
an abstract. major recommendations.
Main Body: Introduction

 A good introduction must furnish the readers

with sufficient material concerning the
investigation and problem, to lead them to an
easy comprehension of the rest of the report.
 The function of an introduction is to put the
whole report in perspective and to provide a
smooth, sound opening for it.
 It presents the subject or problem to the
readers and gets their attention.
Introduction

 Background of the report

 Purpose and scope
 Authorization
 Basic principles or theories involved
 Methods of gathering information
 General plan in developing the solution
 General structure of the report
Discussion

 The discussion should lead through the same

reasoning process the author used to reach
the conclusions and show him that they are
sound.
 It supports the conclusion recommendations,
analysis, logic and interpretation of
information
 Information and data are presented,
analyzed, and interpreted.
Conclusion

 Here the reporter brings together all the

essential points developed in the discussion.

 It is the logical inferences drawn, the

judgments formed on the basis of analysis of
data presented in the report, or to the
findings of the investigation.
Characteristics of conclusion:

 Uses decreasing order of importance

 Can be narrative or tabular.
 Uses narrative type when few conclusions
 Tabular form to be used when conclusions are
more.
 Contains only opinions and never suggests future
actions to be taken by the reader
 Does not introduce any new idea.
 Result of reasoned analysis and judgement of the
data.
Recommendations

 It is the action to be taken as a result of the

report.
 Three types of recommendation
Tentative: these are the temporary actions to
be taken.
Conciliatory: suggestions which you feel may
be accepted by the recipient.
Aggressive: Mandatory recommendations
which are to be implemented immediately.
Supplementary parts
(appendices)
 This section is for information which has no
relevance to the main body of the report but is
required to get additional information on the
topic.
 It contains material not strictly related to the
main argument but which nevertheless is of
interest .
 It contains material which readers can safely
omit but can consult if they want to examine
the details and also carry out further study.
Appendix

 An appendix contains sample documents,

detailed calculations, experimental results,
statistical data, tables, graphs, specimen
questionnaire, samples of forms, interviews,
summaries of results achieved.
 If there are many appendices then name
them as appendix A, B and so on.
 Also give an appropriate title to them.
Bibliography:

 A bibliography is an alphabetical list of the

sources---- books, magazines, newspaper
articles, papers, CD-ROM’s , interviews,
Internet, that you have consulted for writing
the report.
 It is used to give credit to your sources of
words, ideas, diagrams, illustrations, borrowed
quotations.
 It gives your readers information to identify
and consult your sources.
References/sources/works cited

 You call it references or sources if it includes

works consulted but not mentioned in your
report.
 You call it Works Cited if you list the works
that are mentioned in the report.
Glossary

 It is a list of technical words used

in the report and their
explanations.
Index

 It helps the reader to locate any topic

or sub-topic or important aspect of
the contents.
 Entries in the index are made in
alphabetical order and cross
referenced.
Thank you