WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

AND INTERNET OF THINGS

UNIT 1
Wireless Communication: Cellular Telephony
 Wireless Communication
Wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a distance without the help
of wires, cables or any other forms of electrical conductors.
Wireless communication is a broad term that incorporates all procedures and forms of connecting
and communicating between two or more devices using a wireless signal through wireless
communication technologies and devices.
Features of Wireless Communication
• The evolution of wireless technology has brought many advancements with its effective
features.
• The transmitted distance can be anywhere between a few meters (for example, a television's
remote control) and thousands of kilometers (for example, radio communication).
• Wireless communication can be used for cellular telephony, wireless access to the internet,
wireless home networking, and so on.
• Other examples of applications of radio wireless technology include GPS units, garage door
openers, wireless computer mice, keyboards and headsets, headphones, radio receivers,
satellite television, broadcast television and cordless telephones.
Advantages of wireless communication
Cost effectiveness
Flexibility
Convenience
Speed
Accessibility
Constant connectivity
Cellular telephone networks offer mobile communication for most of us. With a
cellular telephone network, base stations are distributed over a region, with each
base station covering a small area. Each part of the small area is called a cell. Cell
phones within a cell connect to the base station of the cell for communication. When
a cell phone moves from one cell to another, its connection will also be migrated from
one base station to a new base station. The new base station is the base station of
the cell into which the cell phone just moved.
Two of the technologies are the mainstream for cellular telephone networks:
The global system for mobile communication (GSM) and
Code division multiple access (CDMA).
GSM is a wireless cellular network technology for mobile communication that has
been widely deployed in most parts of the world. Each GSM mobile phone uses a pair
of frequency channels, with one channel for sending data and another for receiving
data. Time division multiplexing (TDM) is used to share frequency pairs by multiple
mobiles.
CDMA is a technology developed by a company named Qualcomm and has been
accepted as an international standard. CDMA assumes that multiple signals add
linearly, instead of assuming that colliding frames are completely garbled and of no
value. With coding theory and the new assumption, CDMA allows each mobile to
transmit over the entire frequency spectrum at all times. The core algorithm of CDMA
is how to extract data of interest from the mixed data
In cellular communications, the handoff is the process of transferring
an active call or data session from one cell in a cellular network or
from one channel to another. In satellite communications, it is the
process of transferring control from one earth station to another.
Handoff is necessary for preventing loss of interruption of service to a
caller or a data session user. Handoff is also called handover.
Handoffs are triggered in any of the following situations −
• If a subscriber who is in a call or a data session moves out of
coverage of one cell and enters coverage area of another cell, a
handoff is triggered for a continuum of service. The tasks that were
being performed by the first cell are delineating to the latter cell.
• Each cell has a pre-defined capacity, i.e. it can handle only a specific
number of subscribers. If the number of users using a particular cell
reaches its maximum capacity, then a handoff occurs. Some of the
calls are transferred to adjoining cells, provided that the subscriber
is in the overlapping coverage area of both the cells.
• Cells are often sub-divided into microcells. A handoff may occur
when there is a transfer of duties from the large cell to the smaller
cell and vice versa. For example, there is a traveling user moving
within the jurisdiction of a large cell. If the traveler stops, then the
jurisdiction is transferred to a microcell to relieve the load on the
large cell.
• Handoffs may also occur when there is an interference of calls using
the same frequency for communication.
There are two types of handoffs −
• Hard Handoff − In a hard handoff, an actual break in the connection occurs
while switching from one cell to another. The radio links from the mobile station
to the existing cell is broken before establishing a link with the next cell. It is
generally an inter-frequency handoff. It is a “break before make” policy.
• Soft Handoff − In soft handoff, at least one of the links is kept when radio links
are added and removed to the mobile station. This ensures that during the
handoff, no break occurs. This is generally adopted in co-located sites. It is a
“make before break” policy.
Frequency reusing is the concept of using the same radio
frequencies within a given area, that are separated by considerable
distance, with minimal interference, to establish communication.
Frequency reuse offers the following benefits −
• Allows communications within cell on a given frequency
• Limits escaping power to adjacent cells
• Allows re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
• Uses same frequency for multiple conversations
• 10 to 50 frequencies per cell
• For example, when N cells are using the same number of
frequencies and K be the total number of frequencies used in
systems. Then each cell frequency is calculated by using the
formulae K/N.
• In Advanced Mobile Phone Services (AMPS) when K = 395 and N
= 7, then frequencies per cell on an average will be 395/7 = 56.
Here, cell frequency is 56.
• Co-channel interference is not actually an interference but more a sort of
congestion when more than one device is operating on the same frequency
channel. It hinders performance by increasing the wait time as the same
channel is used by different devices. Sources of interference are as follows:
• Another mobile in the same cell.
• Ongoing call in neighbor’s cell
• When a different Base Station operates on the same frequency.
Types of Interference in Mobile Communication
Co-Channel Interference
Adjacent Cell Interference
Co-Channel Interference
• Co-channel cells are those cells that use the same frequency in a given
coverage area. Interference from these cells is called co-channel
interference. In co-channel interference, the cells are clustered as close
together as possible to reduce the co-channel interface and provide
sufficient isolation. Increasing the co-channel reuse ratio improves the
transmission quality because of the smaller level of co-channel interference.
An example of co-channel interference is when a radio transmitter is
operating on the same frequency.
The reasons behind Co-channel interference are:
• Bad weather condition
• Poor frequency planning
Ways we can reduce co-channel interference in cellular
communication are:
• Proper planning and implementation.
• The frequency reuse technique increases overall system
capacity.
Adjacent Channel Interference
• It is the interference caused to the signal which is adjacent in
frequency to the desired signal. Imperfect receiver side filters
allow the neighbouring signal to mix with the actual pass band. if
adjacent channel signal strength becomes strong, it will be
difficult for Base Station to differentiate the actual mobile signal
from the strong mobile signal.
The reasons behind adjacent channel interference are as follows:
• Due to multiple channels close to each other communicating
using similar frequencies.
• Irrelevant power emission from an adjacent channel.
Factors for reducing Adjacent Channel Interference are as follows:
• Proper filtering
• Careful Channel Assignments
• By managing the space between two adjacent cells which should
remain constant.
FDMA TDMA CDMA

FDMA stands for Frequency Division TDMA stands for Time Division CDMA stands for Code Division
Multiple Access. Multiple Access. Multiple Access.

In this, sharing of bandwidth among In this, only the sharing of time of In this, there is sharing of both i.e.
different stations takes place. satellite transponder takes place. bandwidth and time among different
stations takes place.

There is no need of any codeword. There is no need of any codeword. Codeword is necessary.

In this, there is only need of guard In this, guard time of the adjacent slots In this, both guard bands and guard
bands between the adjacent channels are necessary. time are necessary.
are necessary.

Synchronization is not required. Synchronization is required. Synchronization is not required.

The rate of data is low. The rate of data is medium. The rate of data is high.

Mode of data transfer is continuous Mode of data transfer is signal in Mode of data transfer is digital signal.
signal. bursts.

It is little flexible. It is moderate flexible. It is highly flexible.

Circuit Switching Packet Switching
In-circuit switching has there are 3 phases:
i) Connection Establishment.
In Packet switching directly data transfer takes place.
ii) Data Transfer.
iii) Connection Released.

In Packet switching, each data unit just knows the final

In-circuit switching, each data unit knows the entire path
destination address intermediate path is decided by the
address which is provided by the source.
routers.

In-Circuit switching, data is processed at the source In Packet switching, data is processed at all
system only intermediate nodes including the source system.
The delay between data units in circuit switching is The delay between data units in packet switching is not
uniform. uniform.
Resource reservation is the feature of circuit switching There is no resource reservation because bandwidth is
because the path is fixed for data transmission. shared among users.
Circuit switching is more reliable. Packet switching is less reliable.
Less wastage of resources as compared to Circuit
Wastage of resources is more in Circuit Switching
Switching
It is not a store and forward technique. It is a store and forward technique.
Transmission of the data is done not only by the source
Transmission of the data is done by the source.
but also by the intermediate routers.

Congestion can occur during the connection

Congestion can occur during the data transfer phase, a
establishment phase because there might be a case
large number of packets comes in no time.
where a request is being made for a channel but the
channel is already occupied.
 Circuit switching is not convenient for handling bilateral
Packet switching is suitable for handling bilateral traffic.
traffic.

In-Circuit switching, the charge depends on time and In Packet switching, the charge is based on the number of
distance, not on traffic in the network. bytes and connection time.

Recording of packets is never possible in circuit switching. Recording of packets is possible in packet switching.

In-Circuit Switching there is a physical path between the In Packet Switching there is no physical path between the
source and the destination source and the destination

Circuit Switching does not support store and forward

Packet Switching supports store and forward transmission
transmission

Call setup is required in circuit switching. No call setup is required in packet switching.

In-circuit switching each packet follows the same route. In packet switching packets can follow any route.

The circuit switching network is implemented at the Packet switching is implemented at the datalink layer and
physical layer. network layer

Circuit switching requires simple protocols for delivery. Packet switching requires complex protocols for delivery.
1G (1st Generation):
• First-time calling was introduced in mobile systems.
• It used analog signals.
• It used an FDD scheme and typically allocated a bandwidth of 25
Mhz.
• The coverage area was small.
• No roaming support between various operators.
• Low sound quality.
• Speed:- 2.4 kbps.
2G (2nd Generation) :
• Shifted from analog to digital.
• It supported voice and SMS both.
• Supported all 4 sectors of the wireless industry namely Digital
cellular, Mobile Data, PCS, WLAN,
• Moderate mobile data service.
• 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area coverage.
• Speed:- 64 kbps.
2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS. Streaming was also
introduced and mail services too. Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster in
providing services than 2.5G. It gave faster internet speed up to 128kbps and
also used edge connection.
3G (3rd Generation) :
• The Internet system was improved.
• Better system and capacity.
• Offers high-speed wireless internet.
• The connection used was UMTS and WCMA.
• Speed:- 2mbps.
WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System

4G (4th Generation) :
• IP-based protocols.
• LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.
• Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the internet.
• Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with reasonable QoS.
• High usability.
• Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.
• HD Quality Streaming.
• Speed:-100mbps.
5G (5th Generation): It is yet to come in many
countries but here are some notable points
about 5G.
• Higher data rates.
• Connectivity will be more fast and more
secure,
• Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.
• Massive network capacity.
• It is 30 times faster than 4G.
• There would be more flexibility in the
network.