LESSON 4

INTERSECTION CONTROL
AND CAPACITY
Lima Saft, PhD, PE, PMP
INTERSECTION
CONTROL
 Today
3

 Quiz #2
 Due HW #3
 Introduction
4

 At-grade intersections are the most

complex locations within street or highway
system
 Intersection of two 2-way streets:
 12 legal vehicular movements
 4 legal pedestrian movements
 32 conflict points:
 Crossing
 Merging
 Diverging

Source: http://azdot.gov
Movement and Phase Numbering – 4-
legged
5

1
2
14

1
8

16
 Three Levels of Control
6

 Level I – Basic rules of the road

 Level II – Direct assignment of right-of-way
through YIELD or STOP signs
 Level III – Traffic signalization
 Level of control is determined by which and
how many conflicts the driver is able to
perceive and avoid using his or her judgment
 Traffic controls are used where it is not
reasonable to expect the driver to perceive
and avoid a particular conflict
 Driver’s Role
7

 Two factors affect driver’s ability to avoid

conflicts:
 Driver should be able to see a potentially
conflicting vehicle or pedestrian in time to
react and avoid conflict
 Considerations for sight distance
 Possible avoidance maneuvers

 Traffic volume levels should present

reasonable opportunities for a safe
maneuver
 Assessment of demand intensity
 Complexity of potential conflicts
 Level I – Basic Rules of the
8
Road
 Level I applies where the right-of-way is
not specifically assigned via signs or
signals

 Rules are specified in the state vehicle

codes

 Drivers are expected to know and follow

these rules
 Driver of the left must yield to the driver on
the right
 Level I – Sight Distance
9

 Sight distance is usually limited by

buildings or other obstructions
 Visibility triangle must be analyzed
at each conflict location to
determine if sight distances allow
drivers to judge and avoid conflicts
 AASHTO recommends that both
drivers should be able to stop
when they first see the other
before reaching a collision point
 2.5 second reaction time and 85th
percentile speed should be used in
estimating safe stopping distance

Source: www.fs.fed.us
 Level II – YIELD and STOP
10
Control
 When the intersection sight triangle
assessment under the basic rules of the
road indicates unsafe conditions and
traffic volumes are high, level II control
should be considered
 MUTCD provides guidance on usage of
YIELD and STOP controls
 They can be used to establish a major or
through street
 YIELD sign is less restrictive than STOP and
should be used when stopping is not
 Level II – STOP Control
11

STOP sign should be used (based on

engineering judgment and MUTCD) when:
 Daily traffic volumes on a through street

exceed 6000 vehicles

 There is a restricted view from a minor street

 There were 3 or more accidents within a 12-

month period, or 5 or more within a 2-year

period

Source: MUTCD
 Level II – Two-Way Stops
12

 Two-way STOP controls require stopping on the

minor street
 MUTCD is somewhat general and implicit about
STOP sign usage
 MUTCD is more explicit about the inappropriate
usage of STOP signs:
 Shall not be installed at signalized intersections (no
part time STOP signs)
 Should not be used for speed control

Photo: www.fhwa.dot.gov
 Level II – YIELD Control
13

 YIELD sign designates that the major

street has right-of-way
 Vehicles on minor streets must slow to 8
to 10 mph before entering the major
street
 YIELD signs are mandatory at the
roundabouts
 YIELD control is covered under “Options”
in MUTCD
 Level II – Multiway STOP
14
Control
 Controversial method of traffic
control: safety vs. driver
confusion
 All-way STOP control is used
when:
 Traffic volumes are approximately
equal on all approaches
 There are significant vehicle-
pedestrian conflicts
 There are significant vehicle-
bicyclist conflicts
 There were 5 or more crashes in a
12-month period
Level III – Traffic Control
Signals
15

 Level III is an ultimate form of intersection

control
 It alternately assigns right-of-way to specific
movements
 It minimizes the number and nature of
intersection conflict
 It does not depend on the driver’s judgment if
the driver obeys the signal (true for signals with
separate greens for all movements)
 Drivers still need to be vigilant with pedestrian
and bicycle conflicts
 Traffic signals must satisfy one or more signal
 Level III – Advantages of Traffic Signals
16

 Traffic signals that are property

designed, located, operated and
maintained:
 Provide for the orderly movement of traffic
 Increase traffic-handling capacity of
intersection
 Reduce frequency and severity of crashes
 Provide for continuous movement at a
definite speed, when coordinated
 Interrupt heavy traffic to allow other traffic
to cross
Level III – Disadvantages of Traffic Signals
17

 Poor design of the intersection

signalization or geometry may lead to:
 Excessive delay – when cycle length is
either too long or too short
 Excessive violations of signal indications
 Increased use of other routes to avoid the
intersection
 Increases in traffic collisions (especially
rear-end types)
 Basic Types of Controllers
18

 PRE-TIMED: fixed cycle and splits for a pre-defined time

period
 Effective for predictable demand
 Follows a pre-timed schedule
 Ineffective if traffic demand becomes unpredictable as it may
assign too much or too little time to certain phases
 Traffic actuated -Phase lengths are not fixed
 SEMI-ACTUATED: the timing on one or more, but not all
approaches, is set by traffic activation, detection on minor
street
 FULL-ACTUATED: the timing for all approaches is traffic
activated, detection needed on all approaches
 VOLUME-DENSITY: the timing is variable and based on density
and volumes
 The Need for a Traffic Signal
19

 Since traffic signal is the most restrictive

control, study is needed
 Traffic signal can be requested by:
 Public
 Government
 Developers
 Roadway operators
 Media
 Engineers
 Is traffic control needed?
 Items to Include in Engineering Study
20

 Hourly vehicle volume for each approach during 16

consecutive hours on a representative day
 Vehicle volumes for each movement from each approach
categorized by vehicle time during each 15-min period for
two hours each in the morning and in the afternoon
 Pedestrian volumes on each crosswalk for the same time
periods as above, including any nearby facilities for young,
elderly, etc.
 85th percentile speed
 Intersection physical design, including geometrics, turns,
parking, pavement markings, lighting, driveways, adjacent
traffic signals, fixed objects and adjacent land use
 Accident experience for one year by type, direction,
severity, time and day
 Additional Data (for more thorough
understanding)
21

 Vehicle-hours of stopped time delay for

each approach
 Posted speed limit
 Pedestrian delay time for at least two 30-
min peak pedestrian delay periods
 Traffic Signal Warrants
22

 Warrant 1 – eight hour volume

 Condition A – Minimum Vehicle volume
 Condition B – Interruption of continuous traffic
 Warrant 2 – Four-hour vehicle volume
 Warrant 3 – Peak hour
 Warrant 4 – Pedestrian volume
 Warrant 5 – School crossings
 Warrant 6 – Coordinated signal system
 Warrant 7 – Crash experience
 Warrant 8 – Roadway network
 Warrant 1 – 8-hour Volume
23

 Prolonged heavy traffic on conflicting cross-

movements does not offer adequate gaps
 Either Condition A or Condition B needs to
be satisfied to pass
 If Condition A is met, no need to study
combination of A and B  Warrant 1 is met
 If Condition B is met, no need to study
combination of A and B  Warrant 1 is met
 If neither is met, then combination of A and
B is looked at
 Warrant 1 Condition A
24

 This part of Warrant 1 is used when

traffic volume is high
 This condition is met when for each 8
hours of an average day minimum
vehicle volumes reach 100% columns for
major street and higher-volume minor
street approach
 For less populated areas (<10,000) and
when 85th percentile speed is over 40
mph, minimum requirement is in 70%
columns
 Warrant 1 Condition A
25
Values
Number of Vehicles per hour on Vehicles per hour on
lanes on major street (both higher-volume minor –
each directions) street approach (one
approach direction)
Majo Mino 100 80% 70% 56% 100 80% 70% 56%
r r % %
Stree Stree
t t
1 1 500 400 350 280 150 120 105 84
2 or 1 600 480 420 336 150 120 105 84
more
2 or 2 or 600 480 420 336 200 160 140 112
more more
1 2 or 500 400 350 280 200 160 140 112
more
 Warrant 1 Condition B
26

 Interruption of continuous traffic

 This condition is used when major street
traffic is heavy and would not allow safe
gaps for minor-street traffic to enter the
stream
 This condition is met when traffic
volumes have values from 100%
columns
 Warrant 1 Condition B
27
Values
Number of Vehicles per hour on Vehicles per hour on
lanes on major street (both higher-volume minor-
each directions) street approach (one
approach direction)
Majo Mino 100 80% 70% 56% 100 80% 70% 56%
r r % %
stree stree
t t
1 1 750 600 525 420 75 60 53 42
2 or 1 900 720 630 504 75 60 53 42
more
2 or 2 or 900 720 630 504 100 80 70 56
more more
1 2 or 750 600 525 420 100 80 70 56
more
 Warrant 1 Combination A
28
and B
 This approach should be taken when
other alternatives were exhausted
 Warrant 1 is met if both Conditions A and
B are at 80% values
 Warrant 2 Four-Hour Volume
29
 Warrant 3 Peak-Hour
30
Volume
 This warrant addresses a condition where for one hour
of the day traffic on the minor street experiences
extended delay in entering or crossing the major
street
 It is met if the volumes are above the curves (next
slide)
 It is also met when all three conditions (below) exist
for the same one hour
 At STOP sign, total delay traffic on one minor street
approach is 4 veh-hrs or more (1-lane approach) or 5 veh-
hrs (2-lane approach)
 Volume on that approach exceeds 100 veh/hr (1-lane) or
150 veh/hr (2-lane)
 Total volume for the intersection is 800 veh/hr or more (4
or more approaches) or 650 veh/hr (3 approaches)
 Warrant 3 Peak-Hour
31
Volume
 Warrant 4 Pedestrian
32
Volume
 This warrant is used where major-street
traffic creates pedestrian delay
 Two criteria must be satisfied:
 Pedestrian volume across major street is 100 or
more for each of any 4 hrs or 190 for any hour
 There are fewer than 60 gaps per hour in the
traffic stream to cross safely
 It does NOT apply if the next nearest signal
is less than 300 ft away
 For slow pedestrian traffic (speed < 4 ft/sec),
the criterion may be reduced by 50%
 Warrant 5 School Crossing
33

 This warrant should be studied after other

measures did not work (flashers, school
speed zones, school crossing guards)
 This warrant is met when
 The number of adequate gaps when children are
present is less that the number of minutes in
that period
 There are at least 20 students during the highest
crossing hour
 It does NOT apply if the next nearest signal is
less than 300 ft away
 Warrant 6 Coordinated Signal System
34

 This warrant may be used for an intersection

that otherwise would not need a signal to
allow vehicle platooning
 Two criteria must be met
 On a 1-way street: the adjacent signals are so far
apart that there is no vehicle platooning
 On a 2-way street: the same as above AND the
proposed signal along with adjacent signal would
provide a progressing operation
 This warrant should not be used if the created
signal spacing would be less than 1000 ft
 Interconnection
35
Considerations
 Coordinated operation of two or more
signals help vehicle platoons
 This should be considered for intersections
less than ½ mile apart
 This may not be effective in the presence
of driveways, pedestrians, as well as
natural or artificial boundaries
 Coordination is more effective for greater
traffic volumes
 Warrant 7 Crash Experience
36

 This warrant is used at the intersections

with high frequency and severity of
crashes
 All three criteria must be met
 Other alternative controls and enforcement
did not reduce crash experience
 5 or more reportable crashes within a 12-
month period that are expected to be
reduced by the corrective action
 80% of the minimum vehicular (Warrant 1)
or pedestrian (Warrant 4) volumes are met
 Warrant 8 Roadway
37
Network
 This warrant is used when the intersection of
two MAJOR routes meet both criteria below:
 For weekday, the total existing volume is at least
1000 veh/hr during peak hour and 5-year projected
volume that would meet one or more of Warrants
1, 2 and 3
 For the weekend, the total existing volume of at
least 1000 veh/hr for each of any 5 hours
 Major route is
 A part of a principal network for through traffic
 A rural or suburban highway outside, entering or
crossing a City
 A route outlined as major on an official plan
 Overview Questions
38

 In all cases, the minute a warrant is met, a

transportation agency should install a traffic signal
True or False
 The roadway network warrant is necessary for
which of the following:
 Improve intersection flow that has heavy traffic on the
weekends
 Improve flow on the major street due to coordination of
signals
 A signal may be installed even when a single
warrant is not met
True or False
 Operational Requirements
39

 Step 1 It was determined that the signal is

warranted
 Step 2 – identify the most appropriate
method of control
 Controller phasing
 Pre-timed or actuated signal
 Interconnection with other signals
 Phasing Elements
40

 Phase – part of signal cycle that allocates

right of way to a traffic movement or
combination of movements
 Possible added phases:
 Protected heaviest left turn
 Both left turns protected without overlap – dual
left
 Both left turns protected with overlap – dual left,
left + through, through
 Lead lag - lead left, through, lag left
 Directional separation
 Left-Turn Accident Experience Warrant
41

Based on Volume, Delay and Accidents

 Volume

 Product of left-turning vehicles and opposite through

vehicles during peak hour is greater than 100,000 (4-ln)
 Peak-hour left-turn volume is greater than 100 veh/hr
 Peak-hour left-turn volume is over 2 veh/cycle/approach
 Peak-hour left-turn volume is greater than 50 veh/hr for
45 mph through traffic speeds
 Delay: greater than 2 cycles AND one left-turn veh is
delayed one or more cycles per hour
 Accidents: 5 or more left-turn accidents within 12-
month period
 Phasing Considerations
42

 Number of phases should consider

capacity and maintain safe operation
(protected vs permitted left turn)
 Protected – safer, but longer cycle,
longer delay
 Permitted – left-turning vehicles need to
look for a gap in the opposite through
movement, but shorter cycle reduces
the number of stopped vehicles
INTERSECTION CAPACITY
 Signalized Intersections (HCM 2016,
Chapter 19)
44

 Automobile – motorist’s perspective

 Volume-to-capacity ratio
 Delay
 Queue storage ratio
 Pedestrian
 Delay
 Circulationarea
 Perception score

 Bicycle – bicyclist’s view

 Delay
 Perception score
 Intersection Evaluation Levels
45

 Performance of
 Lanes
 Groups of lanes
 Intersection approach
 Entire intersection
 Lane group is established when
 Multiple lanes serve one movement
 One lane is shared by two or more movements
 Movement group is established for
 Each turn movement with one or more exclusive lanes
 The through movement
 Movement and Phase Numbering – 4-
legged
46

1
2
14

1
8

16
 Possible Phasing Schemes
47
EIGHT-PHASE DUAL-RING
PHASING
Major Street Minor Street
Phases Phases
Ring 1   2 3
5 1 4 4
2 4
1 12 4
2 P
3
5 P6 7 7 8
6P
16
5 6 8P
1 8 18
Ring 2
 LOS for Different Modes
49

 Automobile mode:
 Based on performance criteria that are field
measurable and perceivable by travelers

 Non-automobile mode:
 Based on scores reported by pedestrians
and bicyclists based on their perception of
service quality
 Performance for Automobile Mode
50

 LOS can be measured for the intersection, each

approach, and each lane group
 Control delay (by itself) is a measure of LOS for
the entire intersection or approach
 Control delay and v/c ratio is a measure of LOS
for a lane group
 Delay = increase in travel time due to traffic
signal control  driver discomfort and fuel
consumption
 V/c ratio = degree of utilization of phase’s
capacity by a lane group
HCM v6 LOS for Motorized Vehicle Mode on a
Segment (Exhibit 18-1)
51
LOS for Motorized Vehicle Mode at an
Intersection (Exhibit 19-8)
52

LOS Control delay (s/veh) Comments

A ≤ 10 for v/c ≤ 1.0, otherwise
LOS =F
B > 10-20 for v/c ≤ 1.0, otherwise
LOS =F
C > 20-35 for v/c ≤ 1.0, otherwise
LOS =F
D > 35-55 for v/c ≤ 1.0, otherwise
LOS =F
E > 55-80 for v/c ≤ 1.0, otherwise
LOS =F
HCM v6 LOS on a Segment for Pedestrian
Mode (Exhibit 18-2)
53
HCM v6 LOS on a Segment for Bicycle and
Transit Mode (Exhibit 18-3)
54
LOS for Pedestrian and Bicycle Modes at an
Intersection (Exhibit 19-9)
55

 Uses score value that combines quantitative

performance measures (speed, wait time) with
qualitative descriptors (crosswalk width). Lower
score represents better conditions
LOS LOS score
A ≤ 1.50
B > 1.50-2.50
C > 2.50-3.50
D > 3.50-4.50
E > 4.50-5.50
F > 5.50
 Required Data – Motorized Vehicle Mode
56

 Needed for fully or semi-actuated signal

control
 Analysis period: stable traffic conditions,
varies between 15 min and 1 hour, selected
for an entire intersection
 Includes
 Trafficcharacteristics
 Geometric design
 Signal control
 Other – area type, detector mode and stop-
line length
Automobile Mode – Traffic Characteristics
(Exhibit 19-11)
57

 Demand flow rate for each movement group

 Right turn on red flow rate for each approach
 Percent heavy vehicles for each movement group
 PHF for the intersection; up to 1.00
 Platoon ratio for each movement group
 Upstream filtering adjustment factor for each movement
group
 Initial queue for each movement group
 Base saturation flow rate for each movement group
 Lane utilization adjustment factor for each movement group
 Pedestrian flow rate for each approach
 Bicycle flow rate for each approach
 On-street parking maneuver rate for each movement group
 Local bus stopping rate for each approach
Motorized Vehicle Mode – Geometric Design
Data
58

 Number of lanes for each movement group

 Average lane width for each movement
group
 Number of receiving lanes for each approach
= number of lanes departing the intersection
 Turn bay length for each movement group
 Presence of on-street parking for each
movement group
 Approach grade of each approach
 Area type for the intersection
 Motorized Vehicle Mode – Signal
Control (exhibit 19-11)
59
 Type for the entire intersection
 Phase sequence
 Left-turn operational mode for each approach – permitted,
protected or protected-permitted
 Passage time for each phase (if actuated) – green extension due to
vehicle actuation
 Max green (or green duration is pre-timed) for each phase
 Min green for each phase
 Yellow change for each phase
 Red clearance for each phase
 Walk (min 7 sec) for each phase
 Pedestrian clear for each phase
 Phase recall (if actuated) – controller places a call for a specified
phase when controller is servicing a conflicting phase
 Dual entry (if actuated) – for dual ring controls – specifies if a phase
should be activated even if there is no call for service
 Simultaneous gap-out (if actuated) – both of phases have to reach
point of termination for a phase change
 Motorized Vehicle Mode Data
60

= vehicle count during 1-hr period, veh

= vehicle count during the peak 15-min
period, veh

Platoon ratio =
varies between 0.33-2.0
 Motorized Vehicle Mode Data (cont.)
61

 Upstream filtering adjustment factor I considers

the effect of the upstream signal on the vehicle
arrivals to the movement group under
consideration
I = 1.0 – 0.91 Xu2.68
Xu = weighted v/c ratio for all upstream
movements contributing to the volume in the
subject movement group, ~v/c of through
movement at the upstream intersection.
I varies between 0.09 and 1.00
Xu ≤ 1.00
 Motorized Vehicle Mode Data (cont.)
62

 Lane utilization adjustment factor, if uniformly

distributed =1f  v
LU
g

Nevg 1
vg = demand flow rate for movement group,
veh/h
vg1 = demand flow rate in an exclusive lane with
the highest flow rate of all exclusive lanes in
movement group, veh/h
Ne = number of exclusive lanes in movement
group, ln
*Table with default values on the next slide*
 Default Lane Utilization Factor (Exhibit
19-15)
63
 Base Conditions
64

Base saturation flow = maximum

flow rate through a lane at the
stop line during a green light, for
standard lanes, flat terrain, no
heavy vehicles, no parking, no bus
stops, no turning vehicles
 Signal Control Data
65

 Maximum green for pre-timed signals

 10 – 30 sec for left-turn
 20 – 40 sec for through movement on minor
street
 30 – 60 sec for through movement on major
street
 Minimum green
 4 – 15 sec
 Yellow change and red clearance
 3 – 6 sec for yellow change
 1 – 2 sec for red clearance
 Non-Automobile Modes
66

 For bicycle and pedestrian modes

 Input data
 Traffic characteristics
 Geometric design
 Signal control
 Non-Automobile Mode – Traffic Data
67

 Vehicle demand flow rate - for pedestrians for

each movement, for bikes – for each approach
 Right turn on red flow rate for each approach
 Permitted left-turn flow rate for each movement
 Mid-segment 85th percentile speed for each
approach
 Pedestrian flow rate for each movement
 Bicycle flow rate for each approach
 Proportion of on-street occupied parking for each
approach
 Non-Automobile Mode – Geometric Data
68

 Street width for each approach

 Number of lanes for each leg and each approach
 Number of right-turn islands for each leg
 Width of outside through lane for each approach
 Width of bicycle lane for each approach
 Width of paved outside shoulder for each approach
 Total walkway width for each approach
 Crosswalk width for each leg
 Crosswalk length for each leg
 Corner radius for each approach
 Non-Automobile Mode – Signal Control
69

 Walk for each phase

 Pedestrian clear for each phase
 Rest in walk for each phase
 Cycle length for the intersection
 Yellow change for each phase
 Red clearance for each phase
 Duration of phase serving peds and
bikes
 Ped signal head presence
 Default System Cycle Length (Exhibit 19-
17)
70
 Analysis
71

 Step1. Determine movement and lane groups

 Step 2. Determine movement group flow rate
 Step 3. Determine lane group flow rate
 Step 4. Determine adjusted saturation flow rate
 Step 5. Determine proportion arriving during green
 Step 6. Determine signal phase duration, verify
convergence
 Step 7. Determine capacity and v/c ratio
 Step 8. Determine delay
 Step 9. Determine LOS
 Step 10. Determine queue storage ratio
Steps 1-3. Determine Movement
and Lane Groups and Flow Rates
(Exhibit 19-19)
72
 Step 4
73

 Determine movement group flow rate

 Determine lane group flow rate

 If no shared lanes, then movement groups are
the same as lane groups
 If there are shared lanes and two or more
lanes on an approach, then the assumption is
that the driver decides to use a lane that
minimizes their time at the intersection, and a
different procedure is followed (Chapter 31 of
HCM)
s = s0 fw fHVg fp fbb fa fLU fLT fRT fLpb fRpb fwz fms fsp
74

s0 = base saturation flow rate

fw = adjustment factor for lane width
fHV g= adjustment factor for heavy vehicles and grade
fp = adjustment factor for existence of parking activity
fbb = adjustment factor for bus stop activity
fa = adjustment factor for area type
fLU = adjustment factor for lane utilization
fLT = adjustment factor for left-turn vehicle presence in a lane group
fRT = adjustment factor for right-turn vehicle presence in a lane group
fLpb = pedestrian adjustment factor for left-turn groups
fRpb = pedestrian-bike adjustment factor for right-turn groups
fwz = adjustment factor for work zone presence
fms = adjustment factor for downstream lane blockage
fsp = adjustment factor for sustained spillback
 Lane Width Adjustment (exhibit 19-20)
75

Average lane width, ft Adjustment factor, fw

< 10.0 0.96

≥ 10.0-12.9 1.00

> 12.9 1.04

 Heavy Vehicle and Grade Adjustment
76
If the grade is negative (downhill):
100  0.79 PHV  2.07 Pg
f HVg 
100
If the grade is positive (uphill):
100  0.78 PHV  0.31Pg2
f HVg 
100

PHV = percent heavy vehicles in the

movement group, %
Pg = approach grade, %
 Parking and Bus Activity Adjustment
77

fp = adjustment factor for existence of parking activity

18 Nm
N  0.1 
3,600
fp  0.050
N
fbb = adjustment factor for bus stop activity

14.4 Nb
N  0 .1 
3,600
fb b  0.050
N
N = number of lanes in lane group
Nm = parking maneuver rate next to lane group
Nb = bus stopping rate next to lane group
 Adjustment Factors for Turns
78

fLT = adjustment factor for left-turn vehicle

presence in a lane group
fLT = 1/ EL
EL = equivalent number of through cars for a
protected left-turning vehicle (=1.05)
fRT = adjustment factor for right-turn vehicle
presence in a lane group
fRT = 1/ ER
ER = equivalent number of through cars for a
protected right-turning vehicle (=1.18)
Step 5. Proportion Arriving During Green
79

P = Rp(g/C)

P = proportion of vehicles arriving

during green phase
Rp = Red phase duration
g = green time
C = cycle time
 Step 6. Signal Phase Duration
80

Phase duration:
Dp = l1 + gs + ge + Y + Rc

Dp = phase duration, sec

l1 = start up lost time = 2 sec
gs = green service time, sec
ge = green extension time, sec
Y = yellow change interval, sec
Rc = red clearance interval, sec
 Step 6. Effective Green
81

g = Dp - l1 - l2 = gs + ge + e

l2 = clearance lost time = Y + Rc – e

e = extension of effective green = 2
sec
 Step 7. Determine Capacity and V/C
82

For a lane group with no permitted left

turn (no shared lanes):
c = N s g/C
c = capacity, veh/h
s = adjusted saturation flow rate, veh/h/ln

X = v/c
X = volume-to-capacity ratio
 Step 7. Determine Capacity and V/C
83

 Critical intersection v/c

 C  where L  lt , i
X 
c  y c, i

 C  L  ici ici

Xc = critical intersection v/c

C = cycle length, sec
yc,i = critical flow ratio for phase i = vi /(N si )
lt,i = phase i lost time = l1,i + l2,i
ci = set of critical phases on the critical path
L = cycle lost time, sec
 Step 8. Determine Delay
84

 Control delay:
d = d1 + d2 + d3
d = control delay, sec/veh
d1 = uniform delay, sec/veh
d2 = incremental delay, sec/veh
d3 = initial queue delay, sec/veh
 Step 8. Uniform Delay
85

0.5C (1  g / C ) 2
d 1 PF
1  [min(1, X ) g / C ]

y= min(1,X)g/C
d1 = uniform delay, sec/veh
PF = progression adjustment factor
y = flow ratio
P = proportion of vehicles arriving during green
(decimal)
g = effective green time, sec
C = cycle length, sec
 Step 8. Incremental and Initial Delay
86

Incremental delay = delay due to random

fluctuations (overflow) + delay due to sustained
oversaturation

= v/
= incremental delay factor, usually 0.5
= available capacity for a lane group, veh/hr
= analysis period
= lost time, sec

Initial queue delay = unmet demand of the

previous time period
 Approach and Intersection
87
Delay
Calculate delay for each approach:

Calculate delay for the entire intersection

= control delay for approach j (sec/veh)

= control delay for lane group i (sec/veh)
= number of lane groups on approach j
(sec/veh)
 Step 9. Determine LOS
88

 Using tables, determine LOS for each

lane group, each approach, and the
entire intersection
 Control delay is used for automobile
mode
 Score is used for non-automobile mode
 Step 10. Determine Queue Storage Ratio
89

 Back of queue position = vehicle stopped farthest

from the stop line during the cycle at the red light
 Back-of-queue size depends on the arrival pattern
and the number of vehicles remaining from the
previous cycle
 Queue storage ratio = proportion of available
queue storage distance at the time when the
back-of-queue position is reached. If it is greater
than 1.00  storage space will overflow and
queued vehicles would not be able to move
forward.
 Bicycle Mode
90

 Step 1. Determine bicycle delay

 Step 2. Determine bicycle LOS score for

intersection

 Step 3. Determine LOS

 Step 1. Bicycle Delay
91

 Determine bicycle delay

 A. Compute bicycle lane capacity
cb = sb (gb /C)
cb = capacity of bike lane, bicycles/hr
sb = saturation flow rate of the bicycle lane =
2000, bicycles/hr
gb = effective green time for bike lane, sec =
that of the adjacent vehicle traffic stream
C = cycle length, sec
 Step 1. Bicycle Delay
92

B. Compute bicycle delay

0.5C (1  gb / C ) 2
db 
 vb ic  gb
1  min  ,1.0
 cb  C

db = bicycle delay, sec/bicycle

vbic = bicycle flow rate, bicycles/hr

This formula assumes that there is no initial

or incremental delay. Delay in access of
30 sec causes impatience.
 Step 2. Bike LOS score
93

Ib,int = 4.1324 + Fw + Fv Fw = 0.0153 Wcd – 0.2144 Wt

Fv = 0.0066(vlt + vth + vrt)/ 4Nth Wt = Wol + Wbl + Ipk Wos*

Ib,int = bicycle LOS score for intersection

Wcd = curb-to-curb width of the cross-street, ft
Wt = total width of the outside through lane, bike lane and paved shoulder, ft
vlt , vth , vrt = demand flow rates for left, through and right lanes, veh/hr
Nth = number of through lanes
Wol = width of outside through lane, ft
Wbl = width of bicycle lane, ft = 0 if no bike lane provided
Ipk = indicator for on-street parking occupancy = 0 for ppk >0.0, 1 otherwise
ppk = proportion of on-street parking occupied, decimal
Wos = width of paved outside shoulder, ft
Wos* = adjusted width of paved outside shoulder, ft. If curb is present Wos* = Wos -1.5
≥0.0, otherwise, Wos* = Wos
Step 3. LOS for Bicycle Mode at an
Intersection (Exhibit 19-9)
94

 Uses score value that combines quantitative

performance measures (speed, wait time) with
qualitative descriptors (crosswalk width). Lower
score represents better conditions
LOS LOS score
A ≤ 1.50
B > 1.50-2.50
C > 2.50-3.50
D > 3.50-4.50
E > 4.50-5.50
F > 5.50
 Pedestrian Mode
95

 Step 1. Determine street corner

circulation area
 Step 2. Determine crosswalk circulation
area
 Step 3. Determine pedestrian delay
 Step 4. Determine pedestrian LOS score
for intersection
 Step 5. Determine LOS
 Concept of pedestrian
96
space
 Circulation area available for pedestrians
 The larger the area, the more desirable
by pedestrians (Exhibit 18-24)
Pedestrian space, Description
ft2/ped
> 60 Ability to move in desired path, no need to alter
movements
> 40-60 Occasional need to move to avoid conflicts
> 24-40 Frequent need to move to avoid conflicts
> 15-24 Restricted speed and ability to freely pass
slower peds
> 8-15 Restricted speed and very limited ability to pass
slower peds
Pedestrian Circulation Area (Exhibit
19-32)
97
 Effective Walk Time
98

 Pre-timed signal with pedestrian signal head

gWalk = Walk + 4.0, sec
 Actuated signal with pedestrian signal head
gWalk = Dp – Y – Rc – PC + 4.0, sec
 Without pedestrian signal head
gWalk = Dp – Y – Rc , sec
Dp = phase duration, sec
Y = yellow change interval, sec
Rc = red clearance interval, sec
PC = pedestrian clear setting, sec
4.0 additional seconds are added to be concervative
 Step 1. Street Corner Circulation Area
99

 A. Compute available time-space

 B. Compute holding area waiting time
 C. Compute circulation time-space
 D. Compute pedestrian corner circulation
area
 Step 1.A Compute Available Time-Space
10
0

TScorner = C(WaWb - 0.215R2)

TScorner = available corner space, ft2-sec

C = cycle length, sec
Wa = total walkway width of Walkway A, ft
Wb = total walkway width of Walkway B, ft
R = radius of corner curb, ft
If R > Wa or Wb, use R = the lesser of Wa or Wb
 Step 1.B Holding Area Waiting Time
10
1

Nd o(C  gWa lk , mi) 2

Qtd o 
2C
vd o
Nd o  C
3,600
Qtdo = time spent by pedestrians waiting to cross the major street
during one cycle, ped-sec
Ndo = number of pedestrians arriving at the corner each cycle to
cross the major street, ped
gWalk, mi = effective walk time for the phase serving the minor-street
through movement, sec
vdo = flow rate of pedestrians arriving at the corner to cross the
major
C = cyclestreet, ped/hr
length,
sec
 Step 1.B (cont.)
10
2
 Next, these equations are used for a
minor street to calculate Qtco = total time
spent by pedestrians waiting to go over
crosswalk C
 Step 1.C Circulation Time-
10
Space
3

TSc = TScorner – [5.0(Qtdo + Qtco)]

TSc = time-space available for circulation,

ft2-sec
TScorner = available corner time-space, ft2-sec
Qtdo = waiting time to cross major street,
ped-sec
 Step 1.D Corner Circulation
10
Area
4
TSc vci  vco  vd i  vd o  va , b
Mco rn er  Nto t  C
4.0 Nto t 3,600
Mcorner = corner circulation area per pedestrian, ft2/ped
Ntot = total number of circulating pedestrians during each
cycle, ped
vci , vdi = pedestrian flow rates arriving to the corner to cross
minor and major streets, ped/hr
vco , vdo = pedestrian flow rates arriving to the corner after
crossing minor and major streets, ped/hr,
va,b = pedestrian flow rate turning the corner from Sidewalk A
to Sidewalk B, or vice versa, ped/hr
Step 2. Determine Crosswalk Circulation Area
10
5
 This procedure is for one crosswalk
 Needs to be repeated for each crosswalk

A. Establish walking speed

B. Compute available time-speed

C. Compute effective available time-space

D. Compute pedestrian service time

E. Compute crosswalk occupancy time

F. Compute pedestrian crosswalk

circulation area
 Step 2.A Walking Speed
10
6
 Depends on pedestrian age and grade
 0%-20% elderly pedestrians (65 years old
or older)4.0 ft/sec
 >20% of elderly pedestrians  3.3 ft/sec
 Up-grade of 10% or greater  reduce the
speed by 0.3 ft/sec
 Step 2.B Available Time-
10
Space
7

TScw = Ld Wd gWalk, mi

TScw = available crosswalk time-space, ft2-

sec
Ld = length of Crosswalk D (across major
street), ft
Wd = effective width of Crosswalk D, ft
gWalk, mi = effective walk time for the phase
 Step 2.C Effective Available Time-Space
10
8
TS*cw = TScw – TStv TStv = 40 Ntv Wd
vlt , perm  vrt  vrtor
Ntv  C
3,600

TStv = time-space occupied by turning vehicles, ft2-

sec
Ntv = number of turning vehicles during the walk
and ped-clear intervals, veh
vlt, perm = permitted left-turn demand flow rate, veh/hr
vrt = right-turn demand flow rate, veh/hr
vrtor = right-turn-on-red flow rate, veh/hr
 Step 2.D Pedestrian Service
10
Time
9
 For crosswalk width > 10 ft
Ld Np ed , d o
tp s, d o 3.2   2.7
Sp Wd
 For crosswalk width ≤ 10 ft
Ld
tp s, d o 3.2   0.27 Np ed , d o
Sp
C  gWa lk , mi
Np ed , d o  Nd o
C
tps, do = service time for pedestrians that arrive at
the corner to cross the major street, sec
Nps, do = number of pedestrians waiting at the corner
to cross the major street, ped
 Step 2.E Crosswalk Occupancy Time
11
0

Tocc = tps, do Ndo + tps, di Ndi

Ndi = (vdi / 3,600)C

Tocc = crosswalk occupancy time, ped-sec

Ndi = number of pedestrians arriving at the
corner each cycle after crossing the
major street, ped
 Step 2.F Pedestrian Crosswalk
Circulation Area
11
1

Mcw = TScw / Tocc

Mcw = crosswalk circulation area for each

pedestrian, ft2/ped

 Perform calculations for the data on the

other corner of the crosswalk
 Compare calculated Mcw with values from
Exhibit 19-28 (qualitative description of
pedestrian space)
 Step 3. Determine Pedestrian Delay
11
2
Crosswalk performance evaluation
Repeated for each crosswalk

(C  gWa lk , mi) 2
dp 
2C
dp = pedestrian delay, sec/ped

If crosswalk is closed, the equation above would

be appended with two more increments, as the
pedestrians would have to make 3 crossings
 Step 4. Pedestrian LOS
11
Score
3
 Procedure is applied to each crosswalk
 LOS score is computed for the entire

intersection
Ip, int = 0.5997 + Fw + Fv + Fs + Fdelay

Fw = 0.681(N ) 0.514
 v d v
rtor  Fs = 0.00013 n15,mj S85, mj
lt , perm
F 0.00569
v   N (0.0027 n  0.1946)
rtci , d 15, mj

 4 
0.25
n15, mj  
Nd imd
vi
Fdelay = 0.0401 ln(dp,d)
 Step 4. Variables
11
4
Ip, int = pedestrian LOS score for intersection
Fw = cross-section adjustment factor
Fv = motorized vehicle volume adjustment factor
Fs = motorized vehicle speed adjustment factor
Fdelay = pedestrian delay adjustment factor
Nd = number of lanes to cross on Crosswalk D, ln
Nrtct,d = number of right-turn channelizing islands along Crosswalk D
n15, mj = 15-min vehicle count along major street, veh/ln
S85, mj = 85th percentile speed at a mid-segment location on the major
street, mph
dp,d = pedestrian delay traversing Crosswalk D, sec/ped
vi = demand flow rate for movement i, veh/hr
md = set of all automobile movements that cross Crosswalk D (outgoing
(SB lanes) - through, rt, lt, incoming (NB lanes) – rt, lt, through)
 LOS for Pedestrian Mode at an Intersection
(Exhibit 19-9)
11
5
 Uses score value that combines quantitative
performance measures (speed, wait time) with
qualitative descriptors (crosswalk width). Lower
score represents better conditions
LOS LOS score
A ≤ 1.50
B > 1.50-2.50
C > 2.50-3.50
D > 3.50-4.50
E > 4.50-5.50
F > 5.50
 Capacity Calculator
11
6

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 Homework #4
11
7

1. Listed on CANVAS under Assignments.

This is a team homework, one
submission per team please.
2. HW #4 is due 3/13/2024