Database

Systems
LECTURE 2,3,4
CHAPTER # 2
DATABASE SYSTEM CONCEPTS AND
ARCHITECTURE

Fizza.aqeel@nu.edu
.pk
Chapter Outlines

 Data Model, Schema and Instance

 Three schema architecture
 Data independence
 Classification of DBMS
 Database languages & Interfaces
 Database systems environment
What is
Data Model?

Fizza.aqeel@nu.edu.pk
Data Model

 A collection of concepts that can be used to

describe the structure of a database, the set of
basic operations for specifying retrievals and
updates on the database and certain
constraints that the database must fulfil.
 Provides the necessary means to achieve data
abstraction
Database Structure and
Operations
 Structure of a database: data types,
relationships, and constraints that apply to the
data.
 User defined operations: An example of a
user-defined operation could be COMPUTE_GPA,
which can be applied to a STUDENT object.
 Generic operations: insert, delete, modify, or
retrieve any kind of object are often included in
the basic data model operations.
 Constraints: Constraints are restrictions, must
be followed so that we can get valid data.
Categories of Data
Models
 Conceptual Data Model (High-level):
Provide concepts that are close to the way
many users perceive data. (Also called entity-
based or object-based data models.)
 Concepts: entities, attributes, and relationships.
 Entity: real-world object or concept i.e. employee
or a project.
 Attribute: describes an entity i.e. employee’s
name or salary.
 Relationship: association among the entities, for
example, a works-on relationship between an
employee and a project.
Categories of Data
Models
 Implementation or (Representational)
data models: represent data by using record
structures and hence are sometimes called
record-based data models.
 Physical data models: describe how data is
stored as files in the computer by representing
information such as record formats, record
orderings, and access paths.
 Access path: search structure that makes the
search for particular database records efficient,
such as indexing or hashing.
Database Schema

 Database Schema: The description of a

database is called the database schema, which
is specified during database design and is not
expected to change frequently.
 Includes descriptions of the database structure
and the constraints that should hold on the
database.
 Schema Diagram: An illustrative display of
(most aspects of) a database schema.
 Schema Construct: A component of the
schema or an object within the schema, e.g.,
STUDENT, COURSE.
Schema diagram for
the database

Schema Construct: Each object in the schema i.e. STUDENT or

COURSE
Database States

 Initial Database State: Refers to the

database when it is loaded
 Valid State: A state that satisfies the structure
and constraints of the database.
 Distinction
 The database schema changes very infrequently.
 The database state changes every time the
database is updated, or any insertion or deletion
is made.
Example of Database
State
The Three-Schema
Architecture/
ANSI/SPARC

The goal of the three-schema architecture is to
separate the user applications from the physical
database.
 Proposed to support and visualize DBMS
characteristics of:
 Use of a catalog to store the database description
(schema) so as to make it self-describing
 Program-data independence.
 Support of multiple views of the data.
The Three-Schema
Architecture/
ANSI/SPARC
The Three-Schema
Architecture/
ANSI/SPARC
 Internal level: describes the physical storage structure of the
database.
 Internal schema: describes the complete details of data storage and
access paths for the database.
 Conceptual level: hide the details of the physical storage
structure.
 Concentrates on describing entities, data types, relationships, user
operations, and constraints.
 A representational data model is used to describe the conceptual
schema
 The external or view level: includes a number of external
schemas or user views.
 Each external schema describes the part of the database that a
particular user group is interested in and hides the rest of the
database from that user group.
 each external schema is typically implemented using a
representational data model
Data Independence

 Logical data independence is the capacity to

change the conceptual schema without having
to change external schemas or application
programs.
 Changes to constraints can be applied to the
conceptual schema without affecting the external
schemas or application programs.
Data Independence

 Physical data independence: capacity to change

the internal schema without having to change
the conceptual schema.
 Changes to the internal schema may be needed
because some physical files were reorganize i.e.
by creating additional access structures—to
improve the performance of retrieval or update.
 If the same data as before remains in the
database, we should not have to change the
conceptual schema.
Which data independence is difficult to
achieve?
Logical or Physical?
DBMS Languages

 Data definition language (DDL):

 Used by the DBA and by database designers to
define conceptual and internal schemas.
 DBMS DDL compiler: process DDL statements
in order to identify descriptions of the schema
constructs and to store the schema description in
the DBMS catalog.
 Tasks of DDL: Create, Alter, Drop , Truncate,
Rename.
DBMS Languages

 Data manipulation language(DML) / Data

sublanguage
 For manipulating data, manipulations include retrieval,
insertion, deletion, and modification of the data.
 High-level or Nonprocedural DML:
 Set-at-a-time or set-oriented: many records in a single DML
statement.
 SQL is a High Level DML specifies which data to retrieve not how
to retrieve it. Also called Declarative Languages.
 Low-level or Procedural DML
 Record-at-a-time: use programming language constructs, such
as looping, to retrieve and process each record from a set of
records.
 Programming languages used to write programs and
access databases using DML statements are called host
language: i.e. C++, java, python etc.
DBMS Languages

 DCL(Data Control Language):

 Deals with rights, permissions and other controls
of the database system. i.e. GRANT, REVOKE
 TCL(transaction Control Language): deals
with the transaction within the database. i.e.
COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT
DBMS Languages
DBMS Languages

 Storage definition language (SDL): SDL is

used to specify the internal schema. This
component is removed from current SQL to
keep it conceptual and external level only.
 View definition language (VDL): to specify
user views and their mappings to the
conceptual schema.
 In most DBMSs the DDL is used to define both
conceptual and external schemas.
The Database System
Environment
Users of
database
environment
and their
interfaces

internal
modules of the
DBMS
responsible for
storage of
data and
processing of
transactions
DBMS Interfaces

 Menu-based Interfaces for Web Clients or

Browsing
 Apps for Mobile Devices: allow users to access
their data through a mobile phone.
 For example, banking, reservations etc.
 Forms-based Interfaces: designed and
programmed for naive users as interfaces to canned
transactions.
 Graphical User Interfaces: displays a schema to
the user in diagrammatic form.
 The user then can specify a query by manipulating the
diagram.
 GUIs utilize both menus and forms.
DBMS Interfaces

 Natural Language Interfaces: These interfaces

accept requests written in English or some other
language and attempt to understand them.
 Has its own schema similar to the database conceptual
schema, as well as a dictionary of important words.
 It refers to the words in its schema, as well as to the
set of standard words in its dictionary, that are used to
interpret the request.
 If the interpretation is successful, the interface
generates a high-level query corresponding to the
natural language request and submits it to the DBMS
for processing;
 otherwise, a dialogue is started with the user to clarify
the request.
DBMS Interfaces

 Keyword-based Database Search: similar to Web search

engines, which accept strings of natural language words and
match them with documents at specific sites (for local search
engines) or Web pages on the Web at large (for engines like
Google).
 Use predefined indexes on words and use ranking functions to
retrieve and present resulting documents in a decreasing degree
of match.
 Speech Input and Output. Limited use of speech as an input
query and speech as an answer to a question of a request.
 i.e. inquiries for telephone directory, flight arrival/departure, and
credit card account information.
 The speech input is detected using a library of predefined words
and used to set up the parameters that are supplied to the
queries.
 For output, a similar conversion from text or numbers into speech
takes place.
DBMS Interfaces

 Interfaces for Parametric Users: Parametric

users, such as bank tellers.
 repetitive transactions such as account deposits
or withdrawals, or balance inquiries.
 Interfaces for the DBA: privileged commands
that can be used only by the DBA staff.
 commands for creating accounts
 setting system parameters
 granting account authorization
 changing a schema
 reorganizing the storage structures of a database.
Database System
Utilities
 Help the DBA to manage the database system.
 Common utilities:
 Loading:
 Used to load existing data file i.e. text files or sequential
files.
 Current (source) format of the data file and the desired
(target) database file structure are specified to the utility,
which then automatically reformats the data and stores it
in the database.
 Backup:
 Creates a backup copy of the database. , usually by
dumping the entire database onto tape or other mass
storage medium.
 Incremental backups: Only changes since the previous
backup are recorded
Database System
Utilities
 Database storage reorganization:
 Reorganize a set of database files into different file
organizations and create new access paths to improve
performance.
 Performance Monitoring:
 Monitors database usage and provides statistics to the
DBA.
 DBA uses the statistics in making decisions
 i.e. whether or not to reorganize files or whether to
add or drop indexes to improve performance.
 Other utilities: Sorting files, handling data
compression, monitoring access by users, interfacing
with the network, and performing other functions.
Classification Database
Management Systems

 Several criteria can be used to classify DBMSs.

1. Data model
 Relational Data Model(SQL systems):
commercial DBMSs
 Big Data Systems/ Key-value Storage Systems/
Nosql Systems
 Document-based
 Graph-based
 Column-based
 Hierarchical Data Models: Legacy Data Models
 Network Data Models: Legacy Data Models
 Tree-structured Data Model: XML based
Classification
Database
Management Systems
2. Number of users supported by the system:
 Single-user systems: support only one user at a
time.
 Multiuser systems. Multiple users at a time.
Majority of databases are multiuser systems.
3. Number of sites over which the database is
distributed.
 Centralized: data is stored at a single computer
site; can support multiple users.
 Distributed DBMS (DDBMS): have the actual
database and DBMS software distributed over
many sites connected by a computer network. i.e.
Big Data Systems
Classification
Database
Management
Distributed DBMSs: Systems
 Homogeneous DDBMSs: same DBMS software
at all the sites
 Heterogeneous DDBMSs: use different DBMS
software at each site.
4. The fourth criterion is cost.
 Additional cost for accessing additional features.
i.e. data warehousing, data mining, maintenance
etc.
 Examples of free relational DBMSs: MySQL,
PostgreSQL, others
Classification
Database
Management
General purpose DBMSs: Systems
 Special purpose DBMSs:
 Use for specific application.
 When performance is a primary consideration.
 Also called online transaction processing (OLTP)
systems.
 i.e. Airline reservation.
Criteria 1 continued

 Relational data model

 Database as a collection of tables
 Each table can be stored as a separate file
 Uses SQL and support a limited form of user views
 Object data model
 defines a database in terms of objects, their
properties, and their operations.
 Objects with the same structure and behavior belong
to a class
 Classes are organized into hierarchies (or acyclic
graphs).
 Operations of each class are specified in terms of
predefined procedures called methods
Object Data Model
Criteria 1 continued
 Big data systems:
 Key-Value:
 Associates a unique key with each value
 Provides very fast access to a value given its key.
 Firebase from Google
 Document Data Model
 Stores the data as documents, which somewhat resemble complex objects.
 Based on json (java script object notation)
 i.e. MongoDB
 Graph Data Model
 Stores objects as graph nodes and relationships among objects as directed graph
edges.
 i.e. Neo4j
 Column-based Data Models
 Store the columns of rows clustered on disk pages for fast access
 Allow multiple versions of the data.
 i.e. Hbase
Document Model Graph Data Model

Account Last name First name Purchase (in

number dollars)

0411 Moriarty Angela 52.35

0412 Richards Jason 325.82

0413 Diamond Samantha 25.50

Column data model

Legacy Data Models
 Hierarchical Data Model :
 It organizes data in the tree-like structure.
 Hierarchical model consists of the following :
 It contains nodes which are connected by branches.
 The topmost node is called the root node.
 If there are multiple nodes appear at the top level, then these can be
called as root segments.
 Each node has exactly one parent.
 One parent may have many child.
Legacy Data Models

 Network Data Model :

 It is the advance version of the hierarchical data
model.
 In this child can have more than one parent.
Tools, Application
Environments, and
Communications Facilities
 CASE tools: used in the design phase of database
systems.
 Data dictionary(information repository): storing
catalog information about schemas and constraints,
design decisions, usage standards, application program
descriptions, and user information
Application development environment:
PowerBuilder (Sybase) or JBuilder (Borland) including
database design, GUI development, querying and updating,
and application program development.
 Communications Facilities:
 Provided using data communications hardware such as
Internet routers, phone lines, long-haul networks, local
networks, or satellite communication devices.
DML & DDL EXAMPLE
QUERIES
 Create:
CREATE TABLE Students (StudentID INT,Name
VARCHAR(50),Age INT);
DML & DDL EXAMPLE
QUERIES
 ALTER
ALTER TABLE Students ADD
Weight
Decimal(5,2);
DML & DDL
EXAMPLE
QUERIES
 Drop:
DROP Table Students;

 Truncate:
TRUNCATE
TABLE table_name;
DML & DDL EXAMPLE
QUERIES
 Create:
ALTER TABLE Old_Table_Name RENAME TO
New_Table_Name;
DML & DDL
EXAMPLE
QUERIES
 Select
SELECT * FROM
Table_Name

 Insert:
INSERT INTO
Table_Name (Column 1,
Column 2, Column 3,
Column 4) VALUES (Value
1, Value 2,Value
3, Value 4);
DML & DDL EXAMPLE
QUERIES
 Update:
UPDATE Table_Name SET Name = 'New_Value'
WHERE Name = 'Ola_Value';
DML & DDL EXAMPLE
QUERIES
 Delete:
DELETE FROM Table_Name WHERE
Column = Value;