Database System

Nasreen akhtar
FAST-NU
Chiniot-Faisalabad campus
Week 1

 Data models, Schema and Instances, Three-Schema architecture, Data

Independence
 Database languages and interface
 The Database system Environment, Centralized and client/Server architecture
for DBMSs.
 Classification of DBMS
History of database

 First-generation
 Hierarchical and Network

 Second generation
 Relational

 Third generation
 Object Relational
 Object-Oriented
Data Models

 Data abstraction refers to hiding the of details of data organization and

storage.
 Data Independence
 Physical representation and location of data and the use of that data are separated
 The application doesn’t need to know how or where the database has stored the data, but
just how to ask for it
 Moving a database from one DBMS to another should not have a material effect on
application program
 Recording, adding fields, etc. in the database should not affect applications
Data Models

 Data model

A collection of concepts to describe the structure of a database, and certain constraints that
the database should obey.
 A model is an abstraction process that hides details
 Data modeling is used for representing entities of interest and their relationship in the
database.
 The structure of a database includes data types, relationships, and constraints that should
hold for the data.
 Most data models also include a set of basic operations for specifying retrievals and updates
on the database.
 The data model specify dynamic aspects or behavior to specify valid define users operations.
 For example COMPUTE GPA, grade
Categories of data models

1. High-level or conceptual data models

 Use Entity-Relationship(ER) Model
 use concepts such as entities, attributes,
and relationships.
 An entity represents a real-world object or concept,
such as an employee, project, student.
 An attribute represents some property of interest that further describes an
entity, such as the employee's name or salary.
 A relationship among two or more entities represents an association among
two or more entities, for example, a works-on relationship between an
employee and a project.
Categories of data models

2. low-level or physical data model

 provides concepts that describe the details of how
 data is stored in the computer model.
 Representational /logical data model
 It is between High level & Low level data model
 Hide many details of data storage but can be
implemented on a computer system in a direct way.
 Frequently used in traditional DBMS including
relational data model as well as legacy data model
the network and hierarchical data model.
Categories of data models

4. Object data model

 data models as a new family of higher-level implementation data models that
are closer to conceptual data model.
Schema and instances
 Design or description of database is called schema.
 It defines how the data is organized and how the relations among them are
associated.
 It formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the data.
 The database scheme is defined during the database design process and
changes very rarely afterwards.
 The data stored in database at a particular moment of time is called instance
or state of database.
Database State

 Every update operation changes the database from one state to another.
 The Schema is sometimes is called the intension, and the database state an extension
of the schema.
Three Schema Architecture

 There are three level of schema.

 Confirm by American National Standard Institute and Standard Planning and
Requirement Committee
 Also called ANSI/SPARC three level architecture
Three Schema Architecture

Internal Level Schema:

 describes the physical storage structure of the database.
 The internal schema uses a physical data model and describes the complete
details of data storage and access paths for the database.
Conceptual Level Schema:
 Describes the structure of the whole database for a community of users.
 Hides the details of physical storage structures and concentrates on
describing entities, data types, relationships, user operations, and
constraints.
 A representational data model is used to describe the conceptual schema
when a database system is implemented.
Three Schema Architecture

External Level Schema:

 includes a number of external schemas or user views.
 Each external schema describes the part of the database that a particular
user group is interested in and hides the rest of the database from that user
group.
 Each external schema is typically implemented using a representational data
model, possibly based on an external schema design in a high level data
model.
 Mapping: The processes of transforming requests and results between levels
are called mappings.
Three Schema Architecture
Data Independence

 The ability to modify a scheme definition in one level without affecting a scheme
definition in a higher level is called data independence.
1. Logical data independence
 The ability to modify the conceptual scheme without having to change external
schema or application program.
 Usually done when logical structure of database is altered (change constraints, expand
and reduce data base).
2. Physical data independence
 The ability to modify the physical scheme without having to change conceptual
schema.
 Internal schema may be needed to reorganize physical files and improve performance.
 For example by creating additional access structure- to improve the performance of
update and retrieval.
Database languages

 DDL – the data definition language, used by database developer to define the
conceptual and internal schemas.
 The DBMS has a DDL compiler to process DDL statements in order to
identify the schema constructs, and to store the description in the
catalogue.
 Create command is used create table;
 Alter command is used to alter table, columns, constraints and data
types.
 Drop command is used to drop a column, database, table or constraints
Database languages

 DML , Data manipulation language is used to manipulate database.

Manipulation operation includes insertion, deletion and updating and
selection of data in database
 DCL Data Control language:
USE to assign privileges to different user to access database objects
Centralized and Client Server
Architectures for DBMSs
 Centralized DBMS Architecture
 Used mainframes to provide main processing for user application programs,
and DBMS functionality
 User accessed systems via computer terminals that only provided display
capabilities, with no processing capabilities.
 All processing was performed remotely on the computer system, and only
display information was sent to the terminals, connected via a network.
Centralized and Client Server
Architectures for DBMSs

Terminals Display Display Display

Monitor Monitor Monitor

Network
Mainframe
SOFTWARE
(Application Programs, DBMS, Text Editors,
Compilers etc)

HARDWARE
(CPU, Controller, Memory, Disk, IO Devices)
Centralized and Client Server
Architectures for DBMSs
 Client Server Architecture
 Define specialized servers with specific functionalities (file servers, print servers, web
servers, database servers)
 Many client machines can access resources provided by specialized server.
 Client machines provide user with the appropriate interfaces to utilize servers, as well
as with local processing power to run local applications.
 Some machines are client sites, with client software installed.
 Client – a user machine that provides user interface capabilities and local processing.
 Server – machine that provides services to client machines such as file access,
printing, and database access.
  
Two Tier Client-Server Architecture

• User Interface Programs and Application Programs run on the client side
• Interface called ODBC (Open Database Connectivity ) provides an Application
program interface (API) allow client-side programs to call the DBMS.
• A client program may connect to several DBMSs.
• Other variations of clients are possible: e.g., in some DBMSs, more
functionality is transferred to clients including data dictionary functions,
optimization and recovery across multiple servers, etc. In such situations the
server may be called the Data Server.
Three Tier Client-Server Architecture

• Common for Web applications

• Intermediate Layer called Application Server or Web Server:
• stores the web connectivity software and the rules and business
logic (constraints) part of the application used to access the right
amount of data from the database server
• acts like a conduit for sending partially processed data between the
database server and the client.
• Additional Features- Security:
• encrypt the data at the server before transmission
• decrypt data at the client
Classification of DBMSs

 Data Model Classification

 Relational data model
 Object data model
 Hierarchical data model
 Network data model
 Object relational data model 
 Number of Users
 Single User systems
 Multiuser systems
Centralized and Client Server
Architectures for DBMSs
 Number of Sites
 Centralized – data is stored at single site.
 Distributes – database and DBMS software stored over many sites connected
by network
Homogeneous – use same DBMS software at multiple sites. 
Heterogeneous- use different database software at multiple sites.