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Lecture 20

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13 views74 pages

Lecture 20

Uploaded by

gianfrancogiannoni4
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Lecture 20

Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations
Gauss’s Law
The net outward flux through any closed surface equals the net charge inside the surface divided by

Point charge inside a spherical closed surface

𝜙𝑛𝑒𝑡 =∮ ⃗𝐸∙ 𝑛^ 𝑑𝐴=¿∮ 𝐸𝑛 𝑑𝐴¿


Any point on the surface is at the same distance
from the point charge, therefore the electric field
modulus will be constant at the surface

𝑘𝑄 2 𝑄
𝜙𝑛𝑒𝑡 =∮ 𝐸 𝑛 𝑑𝐴= 𝐸𝑛 ∮ 𝑑𝐴= 2 4 𝜋 𝑅 =
𝑅 𝜖0
1
𝑘= Note the result does not depend on the radius of the sphere R
4 𝜋 𝜖0
Gauss’s Law
The net outward flux through any closed surface equals the net charge inside the surface divided by

𝑄
𝜙𝑛𝑒𝑡 =∮ 𝐸 𝑛 𝑑𝐴=
𝜖0

This is true for any closed surface, whether it


contains a single charge or multiple charges

The number of field lines crossing a


generic closed surface is proportional to
the amount of charge inside the surface
Gauss’s Law – charged spherical
shell ()
The net outward flux through any closed surface equals the net charge inside the surface divided by

( 𝑞 1+ 𝑞2 )
𝜙𝑛𝑒𝑡 =∮ 𝐸 𝑛 𝑑𝐴=∮ 𝐸1 ,𝑛 + 𝐸2 ,𝑛 + 𝐸3 , 𝑛 𝑑𝐴=∑ 𝜙𝑖 =¿ ¿
𝑖 𝜖0

Charge q3 will produce electric field lines that will cross


twice the surface, in one case with inward direction and
in the other with outward direction. Therefore, their
contribution to the net flux is zero, i.e. .
Gauss’s Law and Coulomb’s law
𝑄
𝜙𝑛𝑒𝑡 =∮ 𝐸 𝑛 𝑑𝐴= 𝐸𝑛 ∮ 𝑑𝐴=𝐸𝑛 4 𝜋 𝑅 =
2
𝜖0

The electric field is Gauss’s law


uniform at the surface

1
𝑘=
4 𝜋 𝜖0
𝑄 𝑘𝑄
𝐸𝑛 = 2
= 2 Coulomb’s law
4 𝜋 𝑅 𝜖0 𝑅

In case of stationary charges, Coulomb’s law can be derived from Gauss’s law
Maxwell’s equations
Gauss’s law for magnetism
The magnetic field lines will cross any closed surface twice with
opposite direction -> the net flux across the surface is zero

𝜙𝑚,𝑛𝑒𝑡 =∮ ⃗𝐵∙ 𝑛^ 𝑑𝐴=0

Magnetic isolated poles do not exist!


Maxwell’s equations
Magnetic induction
Production of an emf () in an electrical conductor by a magnetic field changing with time (it could be
either the magnetic field strength or the magnetic field direction that changes with time)

𝜙𝑚 =∫ ⃗𝐵∙ 𝑛^ 𝑑𝐴
𝑑 𝜙𝑚 An electric current
ℰ law
Faraday’s =− is produced in the
𝑑𝑡 conducting wire

The flux of the magnetic field depends both on the magnetic field
modulus and its orientation with the respect to the normal direction
(the angle between B and n changes over time).

The wire itself has a direction, that is conventionally positive as


shown in the figure

Example: if we take the directions of B and n as shown in the figure


the corresponding will be positive and the negative
Magnetic induction
Production of an emf () in an electrical conductor by a magnetic field changing with time (it could be
either the magnetic field strength or the magnetic field direction that changes with time)

𝜙𝑚 =∫ ⃗𝐵∙ 𝑛^ 𝑑𝐴
This integral is 𝑑 𝜙𝑚 An electric current
ℰ =−
calculated along is produced in the
the closed path 𝑑𝑡 conducting wire
defined by the wire
loop

⃗ 𝑑 𝜙𝑚
ℰ =∮ 𝐸𝑛𝑐 ∙ 𝑑 ⃗ℓ=−
𝑑𝑡

This is consistent with having unit (V) and corresponding to


the work per unit charge done by the electric force
corresponding to the field .
Maxwell’s equations
Ampère-Maxwell’s law
The tangent component of the magnetic field integrated
along a closed curved path around a constant current , is
proportional to the current.

⃗
∮ ℓ=𝜇0 𝐼 𝐶
𝐵∙𝑑 ⃗
Ampère-Maxwell’s law
The tangent component of the magnetic field integrated
along a closed curved path around a constant current , is
proportional to the current.

⃗
∮ ℓ=𝜇0 𝐼 𝐶
𝐵∙𝑑 ⃗
Ampère-Maxwell’s law
The tangent component of the magnetic field integrated
along a closed curved path around a constant current , is
proportional to the current.

⃗
∮ ℓ=𝜇0 𝐼 𝐶
𝐵∙𝑑 ⃗
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations
Simple wave motion – wave pulse
The shape of the medium at given instant is the wave pulse. It represents the space perturbation that propagates
in time as the wave travels through the medium.
𝑓 (𝑥 ¿¿ ′)= 𝑓 ( 𝑥 −𝑣𝑡 ) ¿
is the wave travelling speed (constant
speed), i.e. the speed with which the wave
pulse translates along the x-axis

The wave speed depends on the properties


of the medium

The wave speed does not depend on the


source of the wave
Harmonic waves
A periodic wave -> the medium oscillates at each point with
the same period.

Harmonic waves are periodic waves -> the medium


oscillates with simple harmonic motion and at each point
with the same period.

Each point moves up and down if frequency f. During a time


𝜆 interval corresponding to a period , the waves covers a
𝑣= =𝑓 𝜆 characteristic length along the propagation direction. This
𝑇
characteristic length is the wavelength (l).
Harmonic waves
A periodic wave -> the medium oscillates at each point with
the same period.

Harmonic waves are periodic waves -> the medium


oscillates with simple harmonic motion and at each point
with the same period.

Each point moves up and down if frequency f. During a time


interval corresponding to a period , the waves covers a
(
𝑦 ( 𝑥 )= 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜋
𝑥
𝜆
+𝛿 ) characteristic length along the propagation direction. This
characteristic length is the wavelength (l).

Periodic function describing how the wave propagates


in space through a medium
Harmonic waves
𝑦 ( 𝑥 )= 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜋( 𝑥
𝜆
+𝛿 ) 𝑦 ( 𝑥 )= 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑘𝑥+ 𝛿 )

When dealing with a single wave it is common to choose

𝑦 ( 𝑥 )= 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜋( 𝑥
𝜆 ) 𝑦 ( 𝑥 )= 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑘𝑥 )

2𝜋 𝑦 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 )= 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑘𝑥 −𝑘𝑣𝑡 )
𝑦 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 )= 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 )
If we also include the time dependence 𝜆
Harmonic waves
𝑦 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 )= 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑘𝑥 −𝑘𝑣𝑡 )
𝜆
𝑣= =𝑓 𝜆
𝑇

𝜔=2 𝜋 𝑓

𝜆 𝜔 𝜔
𝑣= =𝜆 =
𝑇 2𝜋 𝑘

This function describes how an harmonic wave 𝑦 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 )= 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑘𝑥 −𝜔 𝑡 )


propagates in space and time through a given
medium
Electromagnetic waves
Oscillations of magnetic and electric fields
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations
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Maxwell’s equations

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