Introduction to ICT

Computer Classification
(According to Work)
On the basis of working mechanism, computers
are classified as:

1. Analog Computers
2. Digital Computers
3. Hybrid Computers

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Analog Computers
Analog computers are the form of computers which use
electrical, mechanical or hydraulic phenomena to solve
the problems.
Generally, an analog computer uses one kind of physical
quantity to represent the behavior of another physical
system, or mathematical function.
Analog computers are the computers, designed to
perform arithmetical functions upon the numbers, where
the numbers are responded by some physical quantity
like, temperature and voltage (which vary continuously).
Analog computers operate by only measuring rather than
by counting.
These computers are used for solving scientific and
engineering problems. 3
Analog Computers
(Timeline)
The slide rule is a hand-operated analog computer for
doing multiplication and division, invented around 1620–
1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the
logarithm.
The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer
designed to solve differential equations by integration,
using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the
integration. Invented in 1876, they were first built in the
1920s and 1930s.
In World War II era gun directors and bomb sights used
mechanical analog computers.
General Precision Systems electronic analog computer in
1950 was a very adaptable machine that could be 4
Analog Computers
(Timeline)
The MONIAC Computer was a hydraulic model of a
national economy built in the early 1950s.
Heathkit EC-1 an educational analog computer made by
the Heath Company, USA in 1960.
Some examples of analog computers constructed and
practically used are:
 Antikythera mechanism
 Astrolabe
 Differential analyzer
 Kerrison Predictor
 Mechanical integrator
 MONIAC Computer (hydraulic model of UK economy)
 Nomogram
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 Norden bombsight
6
Analog Computers

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Digital Computers
The digital computer is capable of performing operations on
data represented in digital or number form i.e. data
represented as a series of discrete elements arranged in a
coded form.
Digital computers are more accurate than analog computers.

Digital computers handle values that are discrete (binary 0’s

and 1’s).
As the digital computers do not support mechanical based
operations therefore they are free from huge and heavy
mechanical components like motors and gears so the size of
these computers is smaller and are lighter than analog
computers.
The computers that we see all around us in offices, schools,
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homes and colleges are the examples of digital computers.
Digital Computers
Today’s digital computers contain special hardware as
microprocessor, memory, input/output (I/O) devices and
storage devices; and special software like Operating System
(OS) and other utility software which make them more
powerful and flexible.
These computers are quieter than the analog computers for
this they are ideal for office use.
The old digital computers include Zuse Z3 (May, 1941),
Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1941), Colossus (1943), Harvard
Mark I - IBM ASCC (1944) and ENIAC (1944).
Today’s most commonly used digital computers are Intel Core
i5 and Intel Core i7.

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Digital Computers

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Hybrid Computers
The term hybrid computer is frequently used to refer
any computer system that comprises features of
analog computers and digital computers.
Hybrid computer has the properties of both
analog and digital computers and can input and
output analog and digital data.
The digital unit controls the analog unit by the means
of instructions stored in the digital memory.
A hybrid computer uses digital-to-analog and
analog-to-digital conversion.
These computers are widely used in the fields of
robotics. 11
Hybrid Computers
These computers can process both discrete and
continuous data.
The examples of hybrid computer are HRS-
100, a hybrid computer from Mihajlo Pupin
Institute and WAT 1001 (a polish hybrid
computer).

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Computer Memory
Computer Memory
Computer memory is the physical device
used to store data and programs (set of
instructions) temporarily or
permanently.

Data
+
Programs
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Memory Hierarchy

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Memory Hierarchy

Primary Secondar
Memory y Memory Cache
Holds Data
Holds Data
and Holds Data
and
Programs and
Programs
that are Programs
that are
currently that are not
most
being currently
frequently
processed used by
used by the
by the processor
processor
processor

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Primary Memory
It is known as main memory or working memory.
Primary memory holds only those data and
instructions on which computer is currently
working on.
It is generally made up of semiconductor material.
The data and instruction required to be processed
reside in main memory.
It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Faster than secondary memories.
A computer cannot run without primary memory.

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Types of Primary Memory
There are two types of primary memory:

RAM ROM
(Random
(Read Only
Access
Memory)
Memory)

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Random Access Memory
(RAM)
RAM stands for Random Access Memory.
It stores the data and programs temporarily.
It is volatile, means it does not retain its contents
when power is turned off.
It provides data and programs to the processor so
that it can process the data on the basis of given
set of instructions.

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Random Access Memory
(RAM)
RAM is a physical chip (collection of chips).

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Random Access Memory e
(RAM) t
It is Read and Write memory.
i
r
W
Data RAM
W
r
i 21
Random Access Memory
(RAM)
The access mechanism is random (non
sequential), means we can directly access any byte
of RAM with out accessing any other byte.

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Read Only Memory (ROM)
It stands for Read Only Memory.

It stores the special programs permanently.

It is non-volatile, means it retains its contents

even the power is turned off.

ROM is physical memory chip which stores

special program called BIOS (Basic Input
Output System).
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Read Only Memory (ROM)
BIOS is required to start the computer.

When ever you turn on/ restart the computer, the

very first program that starts is the BIOS (Stored in
ROM).

The job of BIOS is to execute POST operation

(Power On Self Test).

POST checks whether all the required hardware is

present or not? And all the hardware attached, is
working properly or not? 24
Read Only Memory (ROM)
The access mechanism is Random like RAM.

ROM is hardware chip.

BIOS is the set of instructions (Program)

ROM + BIOS = Firmware

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Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM is Read Only, we can only read but can not
easily change/update the contents.

Data ROM

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Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as auxiliary / external
memory.
It is slower than main memory.
These are used for storing data/Information permanently.
CPU does not access these memories directly. Contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to main
memory, and then CPU can access it. For example : disk,
CD-ROM, DVD etc.
It is known as backup memory.
It is non-volatile memory.
Computer may run without secondary memory.
Slower than primary memories.
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Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory
which can speed up CPU.
It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory.
It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are
most frequently used by CPU.
The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to
cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can
access them.
Cache memory is faster than main memory.
It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
It stores the program that can be executed within a short
period of time.
It stores data for temporary use. 28
Cache Memory
Cache memory has limited capacity.
It is very expensive.
Most processors have L1, L2 and L3 (Level 1,
Level 2 and Level 3) Cache.
L1 cache is built inside the microprocessor.
L2 and L3 cache are located on the
microprocessor chip.
First, microprocessor finds data in cache memory.
If data is found in cache, it is called as HIT.
If data is not found in cache, it is called as MISS.
In case of MISS, microprocessor requests data from
RAM. 29
Cache Memory

CPU HIT
1. First look in 3. If data is in cache
cache for data send it to CPU

Cache
2. If data is not in 4. Send data from RAM,
cache fetch from RAM write it to cache and
send it to CPU

RAM MISS 30
Types of Random Access
Memory (RAM)
There are two basic types of RAM:
RAM
DRAM SRAM
(Dynamic Random Access (Static Random Access
Memory) Memory)

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DRAM (Dynamic Random
Access Memory)
It is most commonly referenced type of RAM.
It uses capacitors to store the data.

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DRAM (Dynamic Random
Access Memory)
Single capacitor stores 1 bit of data (either 0 or 1).
If charge is stored in capacitor, it means it is holding 1.
If no charge is stored in capacitor, it means it is holding 0.
DRAM is made up of collection of capacitors.
Each of the capacitor is called Memory Cell of DRAM.
A transistor is used to help read and store charge in
capacitor.
Capacitor has the habit of loosing the charge after every few
milliseconds.
Hence DRAM need to be refreshed after few milliseconds.
The refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name.

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DRAM (Dynamic Random
Access Memory)
It needs to be dynamically refreshed all of the
time or it forgets what it is holding.
The downside of refreshing is that it takes time
and slows down the memory.
It is cheaper than SRAM.
It is slower than SRAM.
It stores large number of bits in the smallest
amount of physical space as compared to SRAM.
Primary Memory is made up of DRAM.

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SRAM (Static Random
Access Memory)
Single flip flop can store 1 bit of data, either 0 or 1.
Single flip flop is made up of 4 to 6 transistors and some
wirings.
Flip flop is called SRAM’s Memory Cell.
SRAM does not need to be refreshed.
It is the reason SRAM is faster than DRAM.
Memory cell of SRAM take up more space than DRAM
memory cell.
That is the reason it stores less number of bits in the
physical space as compared to DRAM.
SRAM is larger in size (physically).
It is more expensive than DRAM.
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The Cache Memory is made up of SRAM.
Memory Cells of SRAM and
DRAM

DRAM Memory Cell SRAM Memory Cell

1 Capacitor
6 Transistors
1 Transistor

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Types of Read Only
Memory (ROM)
There are three basic types of ROM:
ROM
EEPRO
PROM EPROM
M

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PROM (Programmable
Read Only Memory)
PROM stands for Programmable Read Only
Memory.
Also called Field Programmable ROM (FPROM).
Or One Time Programmable (OTP) Memory.
We can store/write special program (BIOS) in
PROM but only one time.
Once program is written, we will not be able to
change it.
It is programmed by special device called PROM
Burner (PROM Programmer).
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EPROM (Erasable
Programmable Read Only
Memory)
EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory.
It is erasable and can be programmed again and
again.

Quartz
Window

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EPROM (Erasable
Programmable Read Only
Memory)
In order to reprogram EPROM, it must be first
erased.
EPROM chip has a quartz window on the face of
its, that exposes interior circuit.
When Ultra Violet (UV) light is shine through this
window, it causes a chemical reaction that erases
EPROM.
In order to reprogram, the EPROM must be
remove from the computer.
It is reprogrammed using PROM Burner.
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EEPROM (Electronically Erasable
Programmable Read Only
Memory)
EEPROM stands for Electronically Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory.
Most new PCs now include EEPROM.
It can be erased and reprogrammed again and again.
But unlike EPROM it does not need to be removed from
the computer to be reprogrammed.
It is programmed using special software that runs on
the PC.
Reprogramming EEPROM is a process called Flashing.
EEPROM is also referred to as Flash ROM.
It lets you upgrade BIOS without removing and
replacing the ROM chip. 41