MODERN THOUGHTS

Is a broad term that refers to the ideas, beliefs, and intellectual

movements that have shaped the world since the Renaissance,
roughly from the 15th century onwards. This period witnessed a
dramatic shift in thinking, moving away from the medieval focus on
tradition and religious authority towards a more secular, rational,
and scientific worldview.
 RATIONALISM

Rationalism emphasized the power of reason to understand the world

and solve problems. Thinkers like René Descartes and Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz believed that reason was the primary source of
knowledge.
RENE DESCARTES
 René Descartes (1596-1650) is widely considered
the father of modern rationalism. His philosophical
work revolutionized western thought, shifting the
focus from traditional authority and religious dogma
to the power of human reason.
 Descartes' approach to philosophy was characterized
by a radical method of doubt. He questioned
everything he believed, even his own existence,
seeking a foundation of knowledge that was
absolutely certain. This method led him to his
famous conclusion: "cogito, ergo sum" ("I think,
therefore I am").
 Descartes argued that some knowledge is innate, meaning it is not derived
from experience but is present in the mind from birth. These innate ideas, he
believed, included fundamental truths about mathematics, logic, and the
existence of god.

 Descartes' philosophy introduced the concept of mind-body dualism, asserting

that the mind and the body are distinct entities. He believed that the mind was
immaterial and capable of independent thought, while the body was a physical
machine. This distinction had a profound impact on subsequent philosophical
and scientific discussions about the nature of consciousness and the
relationship between mind and matter.
MORAL THEORY
Cartesian dualism ( or mind-body dualism), his
theory on the separation between the mind and the body
went to influence subsequent Western philosophies. In
meditations on first philosophy, Descartes attempted to
demonstrate the existence of God and the distinction
between soul and the body.
BARUCH SPINOZA
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) was a Dutch philosopher
whose work played a pivotal role in the development
of modern rationalism. He is known for his radical,
pantheistic system of thought, which challenged
traditional religious and philosophical views of God,
nature, and the human condition.

Spinoza’s was deeply influenced by the work of Rene

Descartes, particularly Descartes’ emphasis on reason
and the search for a clear and distinct understanding
of the world. However, Spinoza diverged from
Descartes in significant ways.
 Spinoza’s most famous contribution was his pantheistic view of God. He
argued that God and nature are one and the same, a single, infinite substance
that encompasses everything that exists. This view challenged the traditional
conception of God as a personal being separate from the world.

 Baruch Spinoza was pivotal figure in the development of modern

rationalism. His pantheistic system of thought, his emphasis on reason, and
his radical critique of traditional views challenged the intellectual and
religious landscape of his time. His work continues to inspire and challenge
thinkers today, reminding us of the power of reason and the ongoing search
for a deeper understanding of the world and our place in it.
MORAL THEORY

ETHICS, is a profound and complex system that departs

significantly from tradition moral philosophy. It is deeply
intertwined with his unique metaphysics, which emphasizes a
deterministic and naturalistic view of the universe .
 EMPIRICISM

Empiricism championed by figures like Francis Bacon and John

Locke, stressed the importance of sensory experience and
observation in acquiring knowledge.
JOHN LOCKE
 John Locke (1632-1704) was a prominent English
philosopher who played a pivotal role in the development
of empiricism, a school of thought that emphasizes the
importance of sensory experience in acquiring
knowledge. He is considered one of the most influential
thinkers of the Enlightenment, and his ideas had a
profound impact on Western philosophy, politics, and
science.
 Locke’s theory of empiricism is based on the idea that all
knowledge originates from experience. He rejected the
notion of innate ideas, arguing that the mind is a
“TABULA RASA” (blank slate) at birth, devoid of any
pre-existing knowledge is acquired through our
interactions with the world, primarily through our senses.
The concept of the “tabula rasa” is central to Locke’s empiricism. He believed that we
are born without any innate ideas or knowledge. Our minds are like blank slates upon
which experience writes.

Locke identified two primary sources of experience: “Sensation and Reflection” -

Sensation involves the acquisition of knowledge through our five senses (sight,
hearing, touch, taste, and smell). Reflection, on the other hand, involves the mind’s
ability to process and analyze the information received through sensation.

Despite these challenges, John Locke’s empiricism remains a significant influence of

modern thought. His emphasis on experience, his rejection of innate ideas, and his
focus on the power of human reason continue to shape our understanding of
knowledge, the world, and ourselves.
MORAL THEORY
ETHICS AND THE LAW:
Locke’s ethical framework is rooted in natural law, which the believed is accessible
through reason and dictates that all individuals possess inherent natural rights. These
rights, according to Locke, are not granted by any sovereign or authority but are inherent
in human beings by virtue of their existence. He identified three fundamental natural
rights: LIFE, LIBERTY and PROPERTY.
STATE OF NATURE:
Locke’s theory of the state of natures serves as the foundation for hid political
philosophy. He envisioned this state as a pre-social condition where individuals are free
and equal, governed only by the law of nature. This state, unlike Hobbe’s vision of a “war
of all against all” is not inherently chaotic or violent. Locke believed that individuals in the
state of nature are capable of living peacefully and cooperatively, guided by reason and the
law of nature.
DAVID HUME
 David Hume (1711-1776) was a Scottish
philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist who
is widely considered one of the most important
figures of the Enlightenment. He is best known for
his influential system of philosophical empiricism,
skepticism, and naturalism.

 Hume was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, to a

moderately wealthy family. He attended the
University of Edinburgh but did not graduate,
instead pursuing his own studies in philosophy and
literature.
Hume’s most important work, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739-1740), was
written when he was only 28 years old. This ambitious work laid out his
philosophical system, exploring topics such as the nature of knowledge,
causality, morality, and religion.

Later Works: Hume later published An Enquiry Concerning Human

Understanding (1748) and An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals
(1751), which were more accessible versions of his earlier work. He also wrote
a successful six-volume History of England (1754-1762) and Dialogues
Concerning Natural Religion (published posthumously in 1779).
 Hume’s Empiricism and Skepticism:
 Empiricism: Hume was a strong advocate of empiricism, the belief that all knowledge
originates from experience. He rejected the notion of innate ideas, arguing that the mind is
a blank slate at birth, and all our knowledge is derived from sensory impressions and
reflections on those impressions.
 Skepticism: Hume’s skepticism stemmed from his empiricist principles. He argued that we
cannot have certain knowledge of anything beyond our immediate sensory experience. This
skepticism extended to many areas of traditional philosophy, including metaphysics,
religion, and morality.

 Problem of Induction: Hume famously argued that inductive reasoning, which involves
drawing conclusions about the future based on past experience, cannot be justified
rationally. We can never be certain that the future will resemble the past, and our belief in
David Hume was a groundbreaking philosopher whose ideas continue to
shape our understanding of knowledge, morality, and the human
condition. His empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism have had a lasting
impact on Western thought, influencing philosophers, scientists, and
thinkers across a wide range of disciplines.
MORAL THEORY

• Hume’s moral sentimentalism offers a compelling alternative

to rationalist ethics. By emphasizing the role of emotions and
sentiments in shaping our moral judgments, he provides a more
nuanced and realistic understanding of human morality.