Cellular Fundamentals

Roadmap
 Evolution to cellular communication
 Cellular system generation
 Cellular concept
 Channel assignment
 Capacity increase
 Multi path propagation
Evolution to cellular communication
– communication anytime, anywhere
 radio communication was invented by Nokola Tesla and
Guglielmo Marconi: in 1893, Nikola Tesla made the first
public demonstration of wireless (radio) telegraphy;
Guglielmo Marconi conducted long distance (over see)
telegraphy 1897
 in 1940 the first walkie-talkie was used by the US military
 in 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain from AT&T’s Bell
Labs invented the transistor (semiconductor device used to
amplify and switch electronic signals)
 Evolution to cellular communication –
communication anytime, anywhere
 AT&T introduced commercial radio comm.:
car phone – two way radio link to the local
phone network
 in 1979 the first commercial cellular phone
service was launched by the Nordic Mobile
Telephone (in Finland, Sweden, Norway,
Denmark).
 Cellular systems generations
 1G (first generation) – voice-oriented systems
based on analog technology; ex.: Advanced
Mobile Phone Systems (AMPS) and cordless
systems

 2G (second generation) - voice-oriented systems

based on digital technology; more efficient and
used less spectrum than 1G; ex.: Global System
for Mobile (GSM) and US Time Division Multiple
Access (US-TDMA)
 Cellular systems generations
 3G (third generation) – high-speed voice-
oriented systems integrated with data
services; ex.: General Packet Radio
Service (GPRS), Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA)

 4G (fourth generation) – still experimental,

not deployed yet; based on Internet
protocol networks and will provide voice,
data and multimedia service to subscribers
 Frequency reuse
 method used by service providers to improve
the efficiency of a cellular communication.

 Serve millions of subscribers using a limited

radio spectrum

 Transmitter transmitting in a specific frequency

range will have only a limited coverage area

 beyond this coverage area, that frequency can

be reused by another transmitter.
 Cells
 the entire network coverage area is divided into cells based
on the principle of frequency reuse

 Cell - Basic geographical unit of a cellular communication


area around an antenna where a specific frequency range is used

represented graphically as a hexagonal shape, but in reality it is
irregular in shape

when a subscriber moves to another cell, the antenna of the new cell
takes over the signal transmission

 Cluster - group of adjacent cells, usually 7 cells; no

frequency reuse is done within a cluster
 the frequency spectrum is divided into sub-bands and each
sub-band is used within one cell of the cluster
 in heavy traffic zones cells are smaller, while in isolated
zones cells are larger
Cells
 Types of cells
 Macro-cell – coverage is large (aprox. 6 miles in
diameter); used in remote areas, high-power
transmitters and receivers are used

 Micro-cell – coverage is small (half a mile in

diameter) and are used in urban zones; low-
powered transmitters and receivers are used to
avoid interference with cells in another clusters

 Pico-cell – covers areas such as building or a

tunnel
 Cellular services

 Voice communication
 Short Messaging Service (SMS)
 Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS)
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)
– to access the Internet
Cellular Communication
Components
 Cellular Communication
components (2)
 BTS (Base Transceiver Station) – main component of a cell
and it connects the subscribers to the cellular network; for
transmission/reception of information it uses several
antennas spread across the cell
 BSC (Basic Station Controller) – it is an interface between
BTSs and it is linked to BTSs by cable or microwave links; it
routes calls between BTSs; it is also connected to the MSC
 MSC (Mobile Switching Center) – the coordinator of a
cellular network, it is connected to several BSCs, it routes
calls between BSCs; links the cellular network with other
networks like PSTN through fiber optics, microwave or
copper cable
Components of a cellular phone
(MSU – Mobile Subscriber Unit)
 radio transceiver – low power radio transmitter and
receiver
 antenna, usually located inside the phone

 control circuitry – formats the data sent to and from the

BTS; controls signal transmission and reception
 man-machine interface – consists from a keypad and a
display; is managed by the control circuitry
 Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) – integrated circuit
card that stores the identity information of subscriber
 battery, usually Li-ion, the power unit of the phone
The factor N is called the cluster size and is
given
N=i2+ij+j2

A F

C D E

E B
A A
G C
B
A
C C
F D
A
E
To find the nearest co-channel neighbor of a
particular cell, one must do the following:

 move i cells along any chain of hexagons and

then
 turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j
cells.
 A

i
A

A
i=1, j=2 ,
N=1+2+4=7 A
 Interference
D
Q   3N
R
R - the radius of the cell
D - the distance between centers of the nearest co-channel cells
Q - the co-channel reuse ratio
 Table 1. Co-channel reuse ratio,
S/I for some values of N

N Q S/I W/N
i=1, j=1 3 3 11.3 W/3
i=2, j=0 4 3.46 13.78 W/4
i=2, j=1 7 4.58 18.65 W/7
i=3, j=0 9 5.2 20.86 W/9

S S Pr ~ Pt d 
n
 i0
I
I
i 1
i S
 i0 6
R n

( D / R) n ( 3N )n Q 4
 
I 6 6 6
 ( Di )
i 1
n
Decreasing the co channel
interference - sectorisation
A1
A3
A2 A1
A3
A2

A1
A3
A2 A1
A3
A2 A1
A3
A2

A1
A3
A2 A1
A3
A2
 Decreasing the co channel
interference - sectorisation

Table 2. Co-channel reuse ratio, S/I for values of N=7 using

sectorial structure

4
S o Q S Q 4
(120 )  o
(60 ) 
I 2 I 1
 Setting up a call process

 when powered on, the phone does not have a frequency/

time slot/ode assigned to it yet; so it scans for the control
channel of the BTS and picks the strongest signal
 then it sends a message (including its identification
number) to the BTS to indicate its presence
 the BTS sends an acknowledgement message back to the
cell phone
 the phone then registers with the BTS and informs the
BTS of its exact location
 after the phone is registered to the BTS, the BTS assigns
a channel to the phone and the phone is ready to receive
or make calls
 Making a call process

 the subscriber dials the receiver’s number and sends it to

the BTS
 the BTS sends to its BSC the ID, location and number of
the caller and also the number of the receiver
 the BSC forwards this information to its MSC
 the MSC routes the call to the receiver’s MSC which is
then sent to the receiver’s BSC and then to its BTS
 the communication with the receiver’s cell phone is
established
 Receiving a call process

 when the receiver’ phone is in an idle state it listens for

the control channel of its BTS
 if there is an incoming call the BSC and BTS sends a
message to the cells in the area where the receiver’s
phone is located
 the phone monitors its message and compares the
number from the message with its own
 if the numbers matches the cell phone sends an
acknowledgement to the BTS
 after authentication, the communication is established
between the caller and the receiver
Traffic Channel Allocation

25
 What is channel allocation?
 Given radio spectrum is divided into a set of disjointed
channels that can be used simultaneously while
minimizing interference in adjacent channel by allocating
channels appropriately (especially for traffic channels).
 Channel allocation schemes can be divided into:


Fixed Channel Allocation schemes (FCA schemes);

Dynamic Channel Allocation schemes (DCA
schemes);

Hybrid Channel Allocation schemes (HCA schemes:
combining both FCA and DCA techniques);

26
 Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA)
 In FCA schemes, a set of channels is permanently allocated
to each cell in the network.
 If the total number of available channels in the system S is
divided into sets, the minimum number of channel sets N
required to serve the entire coverage area R is related to the
frequency reuse distance D as follows:
N = D2 / 3R2
 Due to short term fluctuations in the traffic, FCA schemes
are often not able to maintain high quality of service and
capacity attainable with static traffic demands. One approach
to address this problem is to borrow free channels from
neighboring cells.
27
 Simple Borrowing (CB) Schemes
 In CB schemes, cell (acceptor cell) that has used all its
nominal channels can borrow free channels from its
neighboring cell (donor cell) to accommodate new calls.
 Borrowing can be done from an adjacent cell which has
largest number of free channels ( borrowing from the
richest)
 Select the first free channel found for borrowing using a
search algorithm (borrow first available scheme)
 Return the borrowed channel when channel becomes
free in the cell (basic algorithm with reassignment)
 To be available for borrowing, the channel must not
interfere with existing calls, as shown in the next figure.

28
 Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA)

 In DCA schemes, all channels are kept in a central pool

and are assigned dynamically to new calls as they arrive in
the system.
 After each call is completed, the channel is returned to the
central pool. It is fairly straightforward to select the most
appropriate channel for any call based simply on current
allocation and current traffic, with the aim of minimizing
the interference.
 DCA scheme can overcome the problem of FCA scheme.
However, variations in DCA schemes center around the
different cost functions used for selecting one of the
candidate channels for assignment.
29
 Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA)

 DCA schemes can be centralized or distributed.

 The centralized DCA scheme involves a single controller
selecting a channel for each cell;
 The distributed DCA scheme involves a number of
controllers scattered across the network (MSCs).
 Centralized DCA schemes can theoretically provide the
best performance. However, the enormous amount of
computation and communication among BSs leads to
excessive system latencies and renders centralized DCA
schemes impractical. Nevertheless, centralized DCA
schemes often provide a useful benchmark to compare
practical decentralized DCA schemes.

30
 Centralized DCA

 For a new call, a free channel from the central

pool is selected that would maximize the number
of members in its co-channel set.
 Minimize the mean square of distance between
cells using the same channel.

31
 Distributed DCA Schemes
 Based on one of the three parameters:

Co-channel distance
- co-channel cells in the neighborhood not
using the channel
- sometimes adjacent channel interference taken
in to account

Signal strength measurement
- anticipated CIR above threshold

Signal to noise interference ratio
- satisfy desired CIR ratio

32
 Comparison between FCA and DCA
FCA DCA
 Performs better under heavy traffic  Performs better under light/moderate
 Low flexibility in channel traffic
assignment  Flexible channel allocation

 Maximum channel reusability  Not always maximum channel

 Sensitive to time and spatial reusability

changes  Insensitive to time and time spatial

 Not stable grade of service per cell changes

in an interference cell group  Stable grade of service per cell in an

 High forced call termination interference cell group

probability  Low to moderate forced call termination

 Suitable for large cell environment probability

 Low flexibility  Suitable in microcellular environment

 High flexibility

33
 Comparison between FCA and DCA
FCA DCA
 Radio equipment covers all  Radio equipment covers the temporary
channels assigned to the cell channel assigned to the cell
 Independent channel control  Fully centralized to fully distributed

 Low computational effort control dependent on the scheme

 Low call set up delay  High computational effort

 Low implementation complexity  Moderate to high call set up delay

 Complex, labor intensive  Moderate to high implementation

frequency planning complexity

 Low signaling load  No frequency planning

 Centralized control  Moderate to high signaling load

 Centralized, distributed control

depending on the scheme

34
 Other Channel Allocation Schemes

Based on different criterion being used as a potential

way of optimizing the performance, many other
channel allocation schemes have been suggested.


Hybrid Channel Allocation (HCA)

Flexible Channel Allocation (FCA)

35
 Hybrid Channel Allocation (HCA)

 HCA schemes are the combination of both FCA and DCA

techniques.
 In HCA schemes, the total number of channels available
for service is divided into fixed and dynamic sets.

The fixed set contains a number of nominal channels that are
assigned to cells as in the FCA schemes and, in all cases, are to be
preferred for use in their respective cells.

The dynamic set is shared by all users in the system to increase
flexibility.
Example: When a call requires service from a cell and all of its
nominal channels are busy, a channel from the dynamic set is
assigned to the call.

36
 Hybrid Channel Allocation (HCA)
 Request for a channel from the dynamic set is initiated only
when the cell has exhausted using all its channels from the
fixed set.
 Optimal ratio: ratio of number of fixed and dynamic channels.
 3:1 (fixed to dynamic), provides better service than fixed
scheme for 50% traffic.
 Beyond 50% fixed scheme perform better.
 For dynamic, with traffic load of 15% to 32%, better results
are found with HCA.

37
 Flexible Channel Allocation (FCA)

 Similar to hybrid scheme with channels divided into fixed

and flexible (emergency) sets.
 Fixed sets used to handle lighter loads.
 Variations in traffic (peaks in time and space) are needed to
schedule emergency channels.
 Two types: Scheduled and Predictive
 Scheduled: Prior estimate is done about traffic change
 Predictive: Traffic intensity and blocking probability is
monitored in each cell all the time.

38
 Increasing Capacity
 add new channels

not all channels used to start with
 frequency borrowing

taken from adjacent cells by congested cells

or assign frequencies dynamically
 cell splitting

non-uniform topography and traffic distribution

use smaller cells in high use areas
Cell Splitting
 Increasing Capacity
 cell sectoring

cell divided into wedge shaped sectors (3–6 per cell)

each with own channel set

directional antennas
 microcells

move antennas from tops of hills and large buildings
to tops of small buildings and sides of large buildings

use reduced power to cover a much smaller area

good for city streets, roads, inside large buildings
 Mobile Radio
Propagation Effects
 signal strength

strength of signal between BS and mobile unit strong
enough to maintain signal quality at the receiver

not too strong to create cochannel interference

must handle variations in noise
 fading

time variation of received signal

caused by changes in transmission path(s)

even if signal strength in effective range, signal
propagation effects may disrupt the signal
 Design Factors
 propagation effects
 max transmit power level at BS and mobile units
 typical height of mobile unit antenna
 available height of the BS antenna
 these factors determine size of individual cell
 use model based on empirical data
 eg. model by Okumura et al & refined by Hata

detailed analysis of tokyo area

produced path loss info for an urban environment

Hata's model is an empirical formulation
Multipath Propagation
Effects of Multipath
Propagation
 Types of Fading
 fast fading

rapid changes in strength over half wavelength distances
• eg. 900MHz wavelength is 0.33m see 20-30dB
 slow fading

slower changes due to user passing different height
buildings, gaps in buildings etc.

over longer distances than fast fading
 flat fading

affects all frequencies in same proportion
 selective fading

different frequency components affected differently
 Summary
 principles of wireless cellular communication
 operation of wireless cellular communication
 Generations
 Channel assignment
 Mobile propagation model