DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
Mrs. Ofelia
Solano Saludar
Department of Natural Sciences
University of St. La Salle
1. Name the divisions of the coelomic cavities of a
fish, amphibian, reptile/bird, mammal.
2. Name the linings of the coelom, and the
remnants of some of its regions in the
mammalian gut.
Discuss the phylogeny of the following
vertebrate structures:
3. Mouth
4. Teeth
5. Tongue
6. Pharynx
7. Stomach
8. Small intestine
9. Large intestine
10. Describe the ruminant way of eating.
EMBRYOGENESI
S
• The digestive
tract is
formed from
splanchnic
mesoderm.
• Epithelial
lining is
derived from
endoderm
lining the
primitive gut.
 Digestive tube
differentiates
into foregut,
midgut,
hindgut
 Organs arise as
diverticula
from these
regions.
 Stomodeal
and
proctodeal
invaginations
establish an
entrance
(mouth), and
 In all vertebrates except birds & mammals, the
COELOM is divided into 2 compartments: the
pericardial cavity (heart), & the
pleuroperitoneal cavity (viscera). The
transverse septum separates the 2 cavities
 In cyclostomes, fishes & urodeles, the pericardial
cavity is anterior to the pleuroperitoneal cavity.
 Due to the posterior descent of the heart, it lies
ventral to anterior part of the latter starting with
anurans.
 With the transverse septum, a pericardial sac
forms around the heart. Dorsal to the heart are
the pleural cavities.
 In birds & mammals, folds join the transverse
septum to produce the oblique septum in birds,
or the muscular diaphragm in mammals.
 Birds & mammals have 4 coelomic cavities:
pericardial, 2 pleural, peritoneal
 The COELOM has 2 linings: Parietal peritoneum
& Visceral peritoneum
 The dorsal and ventral mesenteries are the 2
folds of peritoneum
 The dorsal mesentery supports the digestive tract
in all vertebrates.
 The ventral mesentery is absent in adult
vertebrates except in the regions of the
liver and the gall bladder (falciform
ligament)
 There are special mesenteries for the
gonads and
their ducts.
 In mammals,
the mesentery

of the stomach

develops a
special
prolongation
 DIVISIONS OF THE
VERTEBRATE ALIMENTARY
CANAL
 Accessory organs
include the
tongue,
teeth, oral glands,
pancreas, liver, and
gall
bladder.
 Differences in the
anatomy of vertebrate
digestive
tracts is
often correlated with
the nature
and abundance of food:
o readily absorbed (e.g., hummingbirds) vs.
requiring extensive enzymatic activity (e.g.,
Filter-feeding is the oldest craniate method of
acquiring food. It is still employed by
lampreys, a few jawed fishes, and baleen
whales
 OROPHARYNGEAL CAVITY
 The oral cavity
begins at the mouth
& ends at the
pharynx.
 FISHES have a very
short oral cavity,
while tetrapods
typically have longer
oral cavities.
 Primary palate-
roof of the oral
cavity of fishes &
amphibians; 20
palate in reptiles &
mammals
 Nasal passageways open into the
oropharyngeal cavity in lobe-finned fishes,
and into the oral cavity in tetrapods with
primary palate.
 Multicellular oral glands open onto the roof,
walls & floor of cavity
 May contain: venom,
saliva, including
several
enzymes,
anticoagulant
(lampreys,
bats)
nutrients in catfish,
mucus
MAMMALS:
 The mouth is specialized
to serve as a suckling
and masticatory organ
(with muscular cheeks).
 An oral vestibule
separates the

gums or alveolar ridges

from
the
cheek and the mouth.
 Oral cavity leads to
pharynx;

transition
passageway is

called the
isthmus of
 Mammals have 3 pairs of salivary glands that
can differ in both the volume & composition of
their secretions.
 Parotid glands secrete a serous fluid; largest
gland in many herbivores
 Submaxillary
(submandibular)
and
sublingual
glands tend to
contain
large
amounts of mucus;
the
submaxillary
gland of the giant
anteater is
 In rodents an opening leads from the
vestibule into the cheek pouch in

which grains maybe stored. It is

emptied by shaking the head
vigorously.

A hamster
with mumps!
 TONGUE
Gnathostomes &
primitive amphibians:
primary
tongue is a
simple crescent-

shaped elevation in
the floor of the oral

cavity caused by the

underlying hyoid
skeleton
Most amphibians - primary tongue (hypobranchial
eminence) + glandular field (tuberculum impar) is
stuffed with hypobranchial musculature
Reptiles & mammals - primary tongue + glandular
 Functions of vertebrate tongues:
capturing & gathering food, taste, manipulate
fluids & solids in oral cavity, swallowing,
grooming, thermoregulation, human speech
 Tongue mobility:
 Turtles, crocodilians, some birds, & whales -
tongue is largely immobilized in the floor of the
oral cavity & cannot be extended
 Snakes, insectivorous lizards, amphibians, &
some birds - tongue is sometimes long and may
move in and out of the oral cavity
 Mammals- tongue is attached to the floor of the
oral cavity (via the frenulum) but can still be
extended out of the oral cavity
 TEETH
Derivations of the fish
dermal armor
 Odontoblasts
deposit dentin;
crown of enamel
from the
ameloblasts of
the enamel organ,
& the cementum
(anchors teeth to
jaw)
 Placoid scales -
show gradual
transition to teeth
at the edge of the
 EVOLUTION OF VERTEBRATE TEETH:
 Vary in number, distribution, degree of
permanence, mode of attachment, & shape
 Have tended toward reduced numbers &
distribution
 Fishes - teeth are numerous & widely
distributed in the oral cavity & pharynx
 Early tetrapods - teeth widely
distributed on the palate; most
amphibians & some reptiles still have
teeth on the vomer, palatine, & pterygoid
bones
 Crocodilians, toothed birds, &
mammals - teeth are limited to the jaws;
diastema are toothless areas on the jaw
 SETS OF TEETH
1. POLYPHYODONT – many
sets, typical of most
vertebrates
2. DIPHYODONT – two sets,
most mammals
3. MONOPHYODONT– one set,
platypus
 Most vertebrates have
succession of teeth
 Most vertebrates (except
mammals) replace teeth in
‘waves’ (back to front; every
other tooth)
 Mammals generally develop
2 sets of teeth: milk
(deciduous) teeth &
HOMODONT- all shaped alike
HETERODONT- varied
 Incisors: cutting plant food
 Canines: slicing and tearing
meat
 Molars: grinding grass and other plants
What’
s on
your
menu?
 MODE OF
ATTACHMENT
 ACRODONT –
peak of jaws,
teleosts
 PLEURODONT
– inner surface
of jaws,
amphibians,
lizards
 THECODONT–
sockets,
crocodiles,
extinct birds
and mammals
MOLARS- tricuspid cusps
Secodont- 2 or 3 cusps
interconnected by sharp
ridges of enamel
(carnivores)
 Selenodont- sharp, crescentric enamel
ridges; side-to-side, forward-backward
chewing movements (bovine molars)
 Lophodont- long, grinding teeth
(proboscidians)
 Bunodont- have low rounded cusps
instead of sharp edges & pointed cusps
(higher primates)
 Examples of
modified incisors
 Specialized fangs
(Viperidae) deliver
venom which kills
prey, as well as starts
digestion
 In other venomous
snakes, teeth are less
derived but can
deliver venom
 Some lizards (Gila
monster) deliver
neurotoxin
 Others have bacteria
that takes down prey
(Komodo dragon)
 Toothless
vertebrates:
agnathans,
sturgeons, some
toads, turtles, birds
(jaw modified into
beaks), & baleen
whales.
 PHARYNX
Pharyngeal pouches
may give rise to gill slits
Fishes – gills & gill slits
Tetrapods- includes:
 Glottis (slit leading
into the larynx)
 Openings of auditory
(Eustachian) tubes
 Opening into esophagus
 Location of tonsils in mammals
Caudad to the pharynx, the wall of the
gut are composed of 4 layers:
 ESOPHAGUS
A distensible muscular
tube connecting the
pharynx & the stomach
 Fishes - closes so
stomach doesn’t
become filled with
respiratory water
 Birds- may have a
diverticulum called
the crop which has
digestive enzymes &
allows hoarding of
food
 Pigeon milk is an
esophageal secretion
in doves for nestlings
 STOMACH
Muscular chamber(s) at end of esophagus that serves
as storage & macerating site for ingested solids &
secretes digestive enzymes
Vertebrate
stomachs:
Cyclostomes -
weakly developed;
similar to
esophagus
Fish, amphibians,
& reptiles -

increasing
specialization
(more
differentiated from the esophagus)
Birds - store large quantities of
food temporarily in the crop,
releasing it for digestion as
needed.
 Stomach is divided into:
proventriculus (glandular
stomach) and ventriculus
(muscular stomach, or
gizzard)
 Lacking teeth, they swallow
small stones which lodge in
the muscular gizzard (the
opening of the pyloric
sphincter is very tiny,
preventing these gizzard
stones from escaping).
 As the gizzard churns, the
stones grind against the food
like numerous tiny millstones.
 Birds must constantly replace
their gizzard stones by
 1. Mouth – usually
relatively simple

2. Esophagus – may be widened at

midpoint to form crop (storage area)

3. Proventriculus – glandular
stomach which is highly acidic

4. Gizzard – thick muscular walls and

sandpaper like surface

stomach 5. Small intestine – food digestion

and absorption

6. Caecum – bacterial breakdown

of cellulose

7. Large intestine

8. Cloaca – final holding area

 Herbivorous Bird
Carnivoro
us Bird
Grain Fruits and
Berries

Gizzard Substanti Substanti Reduced

al al in size

Small Shorter, Longer, Shorter,

intestin less more less
e complex complex complex

Caeca Small or Well Less well

RUMINANT STOMACH
 Stomach serves mainly as a storage sac for
large quantities of vegetable matter.
 In the absence of cellulase, little digestion
takes place in the small intestine, and food is
diverted into a long dead end side branch, the
caecum.
 The caecum houses a huge population of
bacteria, some of which produce enzymes that
convert cellulose to sugars, while others
manufacture amino acids and other nutrients.
 Micromolecules are absorbed directly through
the epithelium of the caecum, and the waste
material is released into the colon for disposal.
A relatively inefficient system, but since the
supply of cellulose is so great, herbivores
modified the lower part of the esophagus and
the stomach into "four stomachs".
Four compartment
stomach

1. Reticulum – form
food bolus and initiate
regurgitation

2. Rumen – digestive
and fermentation vat,
contains anaerobic microbes,
site of fatty acid absorption

3. Omasum – lined by muscular

folds, reduces particle size,
absorbs water (and any
leftover fatty acids)

4. Abomasum – true
glandular stomach where
bacteria and pathogens
are killed
 What do the microbes
provide to the ruminants?

1. Digestion of cellulose

Symbiotic
2. Provision of organic acids Microorganis
ms

3. Provision of protein by
recycling waste nitrogen

4. Provision of B vitamins,
essential amino acids
X
5. Detoxify compounds
What do the ruminants
provide to the microbes?

1. Housing with reliable heat

Symbiotic
Microorganis
ms
2. Adequate nutrition

3. Garbage removal

4. Neutral environment
 INTESTINES
Located
between the
stomach &
the cloaca or
anus
Vertebrate
intestines are
differentiated
to varying
degrees into
small & large
intestines
 Cartilaginous fishes-
have a short, thick,
tapering intestine with a
spiral valve where food
passes slowly as it
moves toward the colon.
 The colon is not required
for resorption of water,
since a shark is
essentially isotonic with
its environment.
 Specialized salt glands,
which remove excess
ocean salts from the
blood dump their waste
into the colon, where it
can be eliminated.
 Amphibians -
intestines differentiated
into coiled small
intestine and short,
straight large intestine
 Reptiles & Birds -
coiled small intestines &
a relatively short large
intestine that empties
into the cloaca
 Mammals - small
intestine is long & coiled
and differentiated into
duodenum, jejunum,
& ileum. The large
intestine is often
 Typhlosoles, coils, villi
and CECA increase
absorptive area of
intestines
 Fishes - pyloric &
duodenal ceca are
common in teleosts;
these are areas for
digestion & absorption
(are not fermentation
chambers)
 Tetrapods - ceca are
present in some
herbivores; may
contain bacteria that
aid in the digestion of
cellulose
 MIDGUT & HINDGUT FERMENTERS
• Enlarged caecum or
colon- rodents,
horses, zebras,
sheep, rhinos, apes,
elephants
• Break down of
cellulose and
carbohydrates
• Forms short-chain
fatty acid
• B vitamins- not
utilized, lost in feces
• Coprophagy–
rabbits eat special
soft feces
 Chamber at end of
digestive tract that CLOACA
receives the intestine, &
urinary & genital ducts
below placental
mammals; opens to the
exterior via the vent
 Lampreys, ray-finned
fishes, & mammals
(except monotremes)-
shallow or non-existent
 If no cloaca is present,
the intestine opens
directly to the exterior via
anus.
 EVOLUTIONARY
ADAPTATIONS
OF VERTEBRATE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS
 GI TRACTS OF FISHES: Articulated jaws are absent in
cyclostomes, and located in the pharynx (1) of some species. The
esophagus (2) varies in length and the stomach is absent in
cyclostomes and some advanced species. Where present, the
stomach (3) may be straight (pike), U-shaped (trout), or Y-shaped
with a gastric cecum (eel). The absorptive surface and digesta
retention time of the midgut (4) is increased by a spiral valve
(5) or pyloric ceca (6) in a number of species.
 GI TRACTS OF ADULT AMPHIBIANS: The gastric region of the
digestive tract forms a thickened sheath, which produces mucus,
a proteolytic cathepsin, and a low pH, but pepsin has been rarely
reported. The intestine is relatively long, with no distinct
separation into a midgut and hindgut. Adult amphibians are
carnivores with a weak dentition that serves for the grasping of
food while it is being swallowed. A distensible tongue is used for
the capture of prey by some species, and the mouth contains
multicellular glands that secrete mucous. Esophageal glands
that secrete pepsinogen have been described in frogs and toads.
 GI TRACTS OF REPTILES: The mouth parts of are used for
grasping, cutting, or tearing their food. Some species have a
distensible tongue that serves as a sensing organ. The oral cavity
contains mucus secreting cells, and in some snakes & lizards,
complex oral glands secrete venoms and digestive enzymes.
Salivary glands are usually absent. The stomach tends to be
tubular. The hindgut of most herbivores is longer and it includes a
blind sac or cecum at its juncture with the midgut.
 GI TRACTS OF BIRDS: The relative size of the crop, and
gizzard are smaller in carnivores, absent in the herbivores, but
granivores generally have a large crop and a large, muscular
gizzard. The gizzard is smaller and less muscular in carnivores
and species that feed principally on nectar, fruit, or pollen, or
small vertebrates. The most well-developed ceca are found in
birds that fed on high levels of plant fiber or invertebrates. The
ceca serve as a major site for microbial fermentation of plant
fiber and chitin in birds that feed on invertebrates.
MAMMALIAN HEADGUT: Mammals have an extremely efficient
masticatory apparatus. Teeth, a mobile tongue, the articulation
of the jaws and a complex musculature sling all allow rotational,
vertical & lateral movements of the mandible. However, a few
species have lost their teeth (replaced in baleen whales with
sieve for filter-feeding). Echidna, aardvarks, scaly anteaters,
edentate anteaters have weak jaws, relatively simple teeth, and
a long tongue that are adapted for feeding exclusively on ants or
termites (the giant anteater's tongue can measure as long as 2
feet).
MAMMALIAN FOREGUT: The stomach of these taxa includes
an expanded segment of sacculated or compartmentalized
forestomach. Therefore, the terms cardiac, body, and fundus
that are used to describe segments of the human stomach are
useless for comparisons with many other species.
E: esophageal entrance, P: pylorus, 1: omasum, 2: abomasum.
 MAMMALIAN HINDGUT: The hindgut varies from a simple
structure with no cecum or valvular separation from the midgut
to a multicompartmental organ. It tends to be longer than that
of other vertebrates, consisting of a colon, rectum, and often a
cecum that is paired in a very few species. The colon of humans
can be subdivided into ascending, transverse, and descending
segments according to the direction it takes in the abdominal
cavity. The "ascending" colon is the segment of hindgut that has
lengthened in most mammals & vary considerably in its length,
volume, and course of direction. Anatomical terms assigned to
the human colon have little comparison to most other species.
CARNIVORES: The stomach consists of a unilateral dilatation of
the digestive tract. Cetaceans have a large multicompartmental
stomach, which is believed to have been conserved from
herbivorous ancestors. The hindgut is very short and indistinct in
Insectivora, cetaceans, and marsupials, and it lacks a valvular
separation from the midgut in some of these species. The
hindgut of many carnivores includes a cecum, but neither the
cecum nor colon are haustrated in most species.
 HERBIVORES: The tract includes an expanded colon, cecum, or
forestomach. An enlarged colon is the principal site for microbial
fermentation. Haustrations extend over the cecum & the entire
length of the colon of most of these species. Bulk & roughage
eaters (cattle and sheep), tend to have the most well developed
forestomach and smallest cecum. Concentrate feeders have the
smallest rumen and omasum, & largest cecum. Some herbivores
show combinations of an expanded forestomach, cecum &
hindgut.
 OMNIVORES: The stomach is simple & noncompartmentalized.
The intestine varies in both its relative length & the ratio between
midgut and hindgut. The hindgut includes a cecum. The cecum
& varying lengths of the colon are haustrated in some species,
and the colon is haustrated throughout its length (pig, human).
The human cecum becomes well-developed during gestation. By
the time of birth it is represented by only a small distention in the
proximal colon, which does not correspond to the apex of the
fetal cecum, and a vermiform appendix.
QUESTIONS?