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Lecture 40,41

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25 views26 pages

Lecture 40,41

Uploaded by

soomrokazim909
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Operating Systems

Concepts
LECTURE 40,41 – FILE MANAGEMENT: RECORD BLOCKING, FILE
ALLOCATION METHODS, FREE SPACE MANAGEMENT
Record Blocking

 Records are the logical unit of access of a structured file


 But blocks are the unit for I/O with secondary storage
 The process of organizing records in blocks is called Record Blocking
 Three approaches are common
 Fixed length blocking
 Variable length spanned blocking
 Variable-length unspanned blocking
Fixed Blocking

 Fixed-length records are used, and an integral number of records are


stored in a block.
 Unused space at the end of a block is internal fragmentation
Fixed Blocking
Variable Length Spanned Blocking

 Variable-length records are used and are packed into blocks with no
unused space.
 Some records may span multiple blocks
 Continuation is indicated by a pointer to the successor block
Variable Blocking: Spanned
Variable-length unspanned blocking

 Uses variable length records without spanning


 Wasted space in most blocks because of the inability to use the
remainder of a block if the next record is larger than the remaining
unused space.
Variable Blocking: Unspanned
Secondary Storage Management

 The Operating System is responsible for allocating blocks to files


 Two related issues
 Space must be allocated to files
 Must keep track of the space available for allocation
File allocation issues

1. When a file is created – is the maximum space allocated at once?


2. Space is added to a file in contiguous ‘portions’
 What size should be the ‘portion’?
3. What data structure should be used to keep track of the file portions?
Preallocation vs Dynamic Allocation

 A pre-allocation policy requires that the maximum size of a file be


declared at the time of the file creation request.
 Sometimes such as program compilations, the production of summary
data files, or the transfer of a file from another system over a
communications network, this value can be reliably estimated.
 But usually it is difficult if not impossible to estimate reliably the maximum
potential size of the file.
 In those cases, users and application programmers would tend to
overestimate file size, leading to wasted space
 Thus, there are advantages to the use of dynamic allocation, which
allocates space to a file in portions as needed.
Portion size

 Portion: Contiguous set of Allocated Blocks


 Two extremes:
 Portion large enough to hold entire file is allocated
 Allocate space one block at a time
 Trade-off between efficiency from the point of view of a single file, or
the overall system efficiency
File Allocation Method

 Three methods are in common use:


 contiguous,
 chained, and
 indexed.
Contiguous Allocation

 Single set of blocks is allocated to a file at the time of creation


 This is a pre-allocation strategy, using variable-size portions.
 Only a single entry in the file allocation table
 Starting block and length of the file
 External fragmentation will occur
 Need to perform compaction
 Contiguous allocation is the best from the point of view of the individual
sequential file.
 Multiple blocks can be read in at a time to improve I/O performance for sequential
processing.
 Individual blocks can also be easily found
Contiguous File Allocation
Chained Allocation

 Allocation on basis of individual block


 Each block contains a pointer to the next block in the chain
 Only single entry in the file allocation table
 Starting block and length of file
 No external fragmentation
 Best for sequential files
 To select an individual block of a file requires tracing through the chain to the desired
block.
 Although pre-allocation is possible, it is more common simply to allocate blocks
as needed.
 The selection of blocks is now a simple matter: any free block can be added to a
chain.
Chained Allocation
Indexed Allocation

 File allocation table contains a separate one-level index for each file
 The index has one entry for each portion allocated to the file
 Typically, the file indexes are not physically stored as part of the file allocation
table.
 Rather, the file index for a file is kept in a separate block, and the entry for the file in
the file allocation table points to that block.
 The file allocation table contains block number for the index
 Allocation may be either
 Fixed size blocks or
 Variable sized blocks
 Allocating by blocks eliminates external fragmentation
Indexed allocation with Block
Portions
Indexed Allocation with Variable
Length Portions
Free Space Management

 Just as allocated space must be managed, so must the unallocated


space
 To perform file allocation, we need to know which blocks are available.
 We need a disk allocation table in addition to a file allocation table
Bit Tables

 This method uses a vector containing one bit for each block on the disk.
 Each entry of a 0 corresponds to a free block,
 and each 1 corresponds to a block in use.
 Advantages:
 Works well with any file allocation method
 Small as possible
Chained Free Portions

 The free portions may be chained together by using a pointer and


length value in each free portion.
 Negligible space overhead
 Suited to all file allocation methods
Indexing

 Treats free space as a file and uses an index table as it would for file
allocation
 For efficiency, the index should be on the basis of variable-size portions
rather than blocks.
 Thus, there is one entry in the table for every free portion on the disk.
 This approach provides efficient support for all of the file allocation
methods.
Free Block List

 Each block is assigned a number sequentially


 the list of the numbers of all free blocks is maintained in a reserved portion
of the disk.
Thank You!

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