Biology and Behavior

Module 3

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Neuroscience and Behavior
Neural Communication
 Neurons
 How Neurons Communicate
 How Neurotransmitters Influence Us

The Nervous System

 The Peripheral Nervous System
 The Central Nervous System
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Neuroscience and Behavior

The Endocrine System

The Brain
 Older Brain Structures
 The Cerebral Cortex
 Our Divided Brain
 Studying Hemispheric
Differences in the Intact
Brain
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 History of Mind
Phrenology

In 1800, Franz Gall

suggested that bumps
of the skull
represented mental
abilities. His theory,
though incorrect,

Bettman/ Corbis
nevertheless
proposed that
different mental 4
abilities were
 Biological psychology

• Studies the links between biology and

behavior
• Alternative names
– behavior neuroscience
– neuropsychology
– behavior genetics
– physiological psychology
– biopsychology

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Neural Communication

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 Neural Communication
The body’s information system is built from
billions of interconnected cells called
neurons.

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 Neuron
Neuron-Nerve cell
Building blocks of the nervous system
Consists of many different parts.

Axon terminals
contain vesicles
containing
neurotransmitters

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 Parts of a Neuron
Cell Body: Life support center of the neuron.
Dendrites: Branching extensions at the cell
body. Receive messages from other
neurons(sensory receptors or neighbor
neurons). Input channels.Bring the information
to the cell body. Short.
Axon: Extension of a neuron. Passes the
message to other nerve cells, muscles or glands.
Output channel. Ends with terminals connecting
to dendrites of another cell. Can be very long
Terminal Branches of axon: Branched endings of
an axon that transmit messages to other
neurons.

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• An electrical chargeAction Potential
travelling down the
axon when a neuron
is stimulated.
• A neural impulse.
A brief electrical charge that travels
down an axon and is generated by
the movement of positively charged
atoms in and out of channels in the
axon’s membrane.

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Action Potential

• Means that the

neuron fires.

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 Action Potential Properties
All-or-None Response:
A NEURON EITHER FIRES OR NOT, there aren’t
different grades of firing.
A strong stimulus can trigger more
neurons to fire, and to fire more often,
but it does not affect the action potentials
strength or speed.

Intensity of an action potential remains

the same throughout the length of the
axon. 12
 Myelin Sheath
• Covers the axon.
• Increases travelling speed of action
potential.

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 Threshold
Threshold: Each neuron receives
signals from many neurons.

• A neuron fires only if the total

signal received at the cell body
exceeds a certain level.

• The level is called the

threshold.
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 Synapse
Synapse [SIN-aps] a junction between the
axon tip of the sending neuron and the
dendrite or cell body of the receiving
neuron. This tiny gap is called the
synaptic gap or cleft.

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 Neurotransmitters
• Chemical messangers that traverse the
synaptic gaps between neurons.
• When released by sending neuron,
neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and
bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron.

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 Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
(chemicals) released
from the sending
neuron travel across
the synapse and bind
to receptor sites on
the receiving
neuron, thereby
influencing it to
generate an action
potential.
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 How Neurotransmitters
Influence Us
• Acetylecholine (ACh) is the messenger at the
each junction between motor neuron and
skeletal muscle.
• When released to muscle cells, muscles are
contracted.
• When ACh transmission is blocked, muscles
are paralyzed.
From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, © 1989
University of California Press

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Neurotransmitters

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 How Neurotransmitters
Influence Us

Serotonin pathways
are involved with
mood regulation.

From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, © 1989

University of California Press

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 Dopamine Pathways

Dopamine
pathways are
involved with
diseases such as
schizophrenia and
Parkinson’s
disease. From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, © 1989
University of California Press

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 Reuptake

Neurotransmitters in the
synapse are reabsorbed into
the sending neurons through
the process of reuptake.

 The process of the

absorption of excess
neurotransmitter molecules
by the sending neuron.
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 Neural networks

 Neurons cluster into groups.

 They network with neighbors.
 We still don’t know how this organization
happens!

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 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The body’s electrochemical communication
network
 Speedy
 Consists of the central nervous system (CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
 Its elementary components are neurons.

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 CNS and PNS
• The central nervous system: the brain + the
spinal cord

• The peripheral nervous system: the sensory

neurons + the motor neurons

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 Sensory neurons
• Carries messages from the body’s tissues +
sensory organs to the CNS.
• There are a few millions of them.

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 Motor neurons
• Carries instructions from the CNS to the
body’s tissues.
• There are a few millions of them.

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 Interneurons
• CNS’ neurons for internal communication.
• There are billions of them.

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 Nerves
 Neural cables.
 Contain axons.
 Connect the CNS with muscles, glands and
sense organs.

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Fig. 2.10
 THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM

a. The Somatic Nervous System

b.The Autonomic Nervous System

b1. The sympathetic NS
b2. The parasympathetic NS

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 The Somatic Nervous System
 Operates voluntarily.

 Control of the skeletal muscles.

 Turning the page, exercising,

typing.

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 The Autonomic Nervous System
 Operates autonomously.

 Responsible from glandular activity, heartbeat,

digestion.

 Consists of Sympathetic NS + parasympathetic

NS.
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 The sympathetic NS
 Arouses.
 Expends energy.
 Alarm/excitement/anxiety.
 Increases heartbeat + raises blood sugar and
pressure + slows digestion + cools the body by
perspiration.
 Epinephrine + norepinephrine are released.
 Makes ready for action.
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 The parasympathetic NS
 Calms.
 Conserves energy.
 Decreases heartbeat + lowers blood sugar and
pressure + stimulates digestion.

 Both systems work together to keep us

stable!
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 THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The Brain and Neural Networks.
 Interconnected neurons form networks in the
brain.
 These networks are complex and modify with
growth and experience.
 Information highway connecting the peripheral
NS to the brain.
 Reflexes. 36
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 The Brain
Techniques to Study the Brain

A brain lesion
experimentally
destroys brain
tissue to study
animal behaviors
after such
destruction. Hubel (1990)

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 Clinical Observation
Clinical observations have shed light on
a number of brain disorders. Alterations
in brain morphology due to neurological
and psychiatric diseases are now being
catalogued.

Tom Landers/ Boston Globe

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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
An amplified recording of the electrical
waves sweeping across the brain’s
surface, measured by electrodes placed
on the scalp.

AJ Photo/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

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 PET Scan

PET (positron

Courtesy of National Brookhaven National Laboratories

emission tomography)
Scan is a visual
display of brain
activity that detects a
radioactive form of
glucose while the
brain performs a given
task.
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 MRI Scan
MRI (magnetic
resonance imaging)
uses magnetic fields
and radio waves to
produce computer-
generated images that
distinguish among
Both photos from Daniel Weinberger, M.D., CBDB, NIMH

different types of brain

tissue. Top images
show ventricular
enlargement in a
schizophrenic patient.
Bottom image shows James Salzano/ Salzano Photo Lucy Reading/ Lucy Illustrations

brain regions when a 43

participants lies.
 Neurobiologists and other investigators
understand that humans and animals
operate similarly when processing
information.

Note the similarities in the above brain regions, which are al

engaged in information processing. 44
Fig. 2.11a
Fig. 2.8
 The Brain:
Older Brain Structures
• The Brainstem is the oldest part of the brain.
• Begins where the spinal cord swells and enters
the skull.
• It is responsible for automatic survival functions.
 Consists of medulla, pons, reticular formation,
and the thalamus.

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 Brainstem

The Medulla [muh-

DUL-uh] is the base
of the brainstem that
controls heartbeat Pons

and breathing.

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 Brainstem

Reticular Formation
is a nerve network in
the brainstem that
plays an important
role in controlling
arousal.

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 Brainstem
The Thalamus [THAL-uh-
muss] is the brain’s
sensory switchboard,
located on top of the
brainstem. It directs
messages to the sensory
areas in the cortex and
transmits replies to the
cerebellum and medulla.
The thalamus acts as a
switching center for
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nerve messages
 Cerebellum
The “little brain”
attached to the rear
of the brainstem.
The cerebellum
functions for fine
motor coordination
and body movement,
posture, and
balance.

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 The Limbic System
The Limbic System is
a doughnut-shaped
system of neural
structures at the
border of the
brainstem and
cerebrum, associated
with emotions such as
fear, aggression and
drives for food and
sex. It includes the
hippocampus,
amygdala, and 52
 Limbic System

 Controls Emotions
 Emotional Responses
 Hormonal Secretions
 Mood
 Motivation
 Pain and Pleasure Sensations
 Amygdala

The Amygdala [ah-MIG-

dah-la] consists of two
lima bean-sized neural
clusters linked to the
emotions of fear and
anger.

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 Hypothalamus
Homeostatic center
The Hypothalamus
lies below (hypo) the
thalamus.

It directs several
maintenance
activities like eating,
drinking, body
temperature, and
control of emotions.

It helps govern the

endocrine system via 55
 The Hippocampus
 Consolidation of New Memories ,
 Emotions,
 Navigation ,
 Spatial Orientation.

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 Reward Center
Rats cross an
electrified grid for
self-stimulation when
electrodes are placed
in the reward
(hypothalamus)
center (top picture).

Sanjiv Talwar, SUNY Downstate

When the limbic
system is
manipulated, a rat
will navigate fields or
climb up a tree 57
Brain Structures

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 Cerebrum
• The cerebrum, the largest part of the
human brain, is divided into left and right
hemispheres connected to each other by
the corpus callosum.

• The hemispheres are covered by a thin

layer of gray matter known as the
cerebral cortex (with wrinckles), the
most recently evolved region of the brain.

• Right hem.- perceptual tasks, recognition

of emotions.
• Left hem.- linguistic tasks, math skills.
 The Cerebral Cortex
Interconnected neural cells that covers the
cerebral hemispheres.

It is the body’s ultimate control and

information processing center.

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Fig. 2.9
 Structure of the Cortex
Each brain
hemisphere is
divided into four
lobes that are
separated by
prominent fissures.
These lobes are the
frontal lobe
(forehead), parietal
lobe (top to rear
head), occipital lobe
(back head) and
temporal lobe (side 62
Fig. 2.11b
• The occipital lobe (back of the head) receives and
processes visual information.

• The temporal lobe receives auditory signals,

processing language and the meaning of words.

• The parietal lobe is associated with the sensory

cortex and processes information about touch,
taste, pressure, pain, and heat and cold.

• The frontal lobe conducts three functions:

– motor activity and integration of muscle activity
– speech
– thought processes
 Functions of the Cortex
• The Motor Cortex is the area at the rear
of the right and left frontal lobes.
• controls voluntary movements.
• sends messages to the body.

• The Sensory Cortex (parietal cortex) is at

the parietal lobe.
• Receives information from skin surface
and sense organs.
• Visual cortex –information from eyes.
• Auditory cortex – information from ears.
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Fig. 2.12

Motor cortex
Fig. 2.13

Sensory cortex
 69

Courtesy of V.P. Clark, K. Keill, J. Ma.

Maisog, S. Courtney, L.G.
Ungerleider, and J.V. Haxby,
National Institute of Mental Health
Visual Function

active as the subject

The functional MRI
scan shows the
visual cortex is

looks at faces.
 Auditory Function

The functional MRI

scan shows the
auditory cortex is
active in patients who
hallucinate.

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Association Areas
The rest of cortex.
Thinking mental functions.

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 Language
Aphasia is an impairment of language,
usually caused by left hemisphere damage
either to Broca’s area (impaired speaking)
or to Wernicke’s area (impaired
understanding).

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Fig. 2.16
Specialization & Integration
Brain activity when hearing, seeing, and
speaking words

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 The Brain’s Plasticity
The brain is sculpted by our genes but also
by our experiences.

Plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to

modify itself after some types of injury or
illness.

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 Our Divided Brain
Our brain is divided into two
hemispheres.
The left hemisphere processes reading,
writing, speaking, mathematics, and
comprehension skills. In the 1960s, it was
termed as the dominant brain.

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Fig. 2.17
 Splitting the Brain
A procedure in which the two hemispheres of
the brain are isolated by cutting the
connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus
callosum) between them.
Corpus Callosum
Courtesy of Terence Williams, University of Iowa

Martin M. Rother
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 Try This!
Try drawing one shape with your left hand
and one with your right hand,
simultaneously.

BBC
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 Split Brain Patients
With the corpus callosum severed, objects
(apple) presented in the right visual field
can be named. Objects (pencil) in the left
visual field cannot.

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Divided Consciousness

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 Non-Split Brains
People with intact brains also show left-
right hemispheric differences in mental
abilities.

A number of brain scan studies show

normal individuals engage their right
brain when completing a perceptual task
and their left brain when carrying out a
linguistic task.

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