Digital

Fundamentals
Tenth Edition

Floyd

Chapter 1
Introductory
Concepts

© 2008 Pearson Education

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Analog Quantities

Most natural quantities that we see are analog and vary

continuously. Dataconverters are required to convert from
analog to digital and digital to analog.
Temperature
(° F)

100
95
90
85
80
75
70
Time of day
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
A .M . P.M .

Digital systems can process, store, and transmit data more

efficiently but can only assign discrete values to each point.
Noise (undesirable voltage fluctuations) do not affect
digital
Floyd, Digital data
Fundamentals, nearly as much
10 ed
th
© 2009as analog
Pearson Education,signals.
2
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 Analog and Digital Systems

Many systems use a mix of analog and digital electronics to

take advantage of each technology. A typical CD player
accepts digital data from the CD drive and converts it to an
analog signal for amplification.
CD drive

10110011101 Digital-to-analog Linear amplifier

Digital data converter Analog
reproduction
of music audio Speaker
signal
Sound
waves

3
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Binary Digits and Logic Levels

Digital electronics uses circuits that have two states, which

are represented by two different voltage levels called HIGH
and LOW. The voltages represent numbers in the binary
system.
In binary, a single number is called a bit VH(max)

(for binary digit). A bit can have the HIGH

value of either a 0 or a 1, depending on if VH(min)

the voltage is HIGH or LOW. Invalid

VL(max)

LOW
Example: 3.3V CMOS logic circuits
VL(min)
0 to 0.8V = LOW
2 to 3.3V = HIGH
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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Digital Waveforms

Digital waveforms change between the LOW and HIGH

levels. A positive going pulse is one that goes from a
normally LOW logic level to a HIGH level and then back
again. Digital waveforms are made up of a series of pulses.
The rise and fall times are not zero. ie. The slope is not
infinite
HIGH HIGH

Rising or Falling or Falling or Rising or

leading edge trailing edge leading edge trailing edge

LOW LOW
t0 t1 t0 t1

(a) Positive–going pulse (b) Negative–going pulse

5
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Pulse Definitions

Actual pulses are not ideal but are described by the rise time,
fall time, amplitude, and other characteristics.
Overshoot
Ringing
Droop
90%
Amplitude tW
50%
Pulse width

10%
Ringing

Base line Undershoot

tr tf
Rise time Fall time

Rise and fall time usually specified using 10 to 90% of max voltage.
Rise and fall times may not be equal
6
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Periodic Pulse Waveforms
Periodic pulse waveforms are composed of pulses that repeats
in a fixed interval called the period. The frequency is the rate
it repeats and is measured in hertz.
1 1
f  T
T f
The clock is a basic timing signal that is an example of a
periodic wave.

What is the period of a repetitive wave if f = 3.2 GHz?

1 1
T   313 ps
f 3.2 GHz
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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Pulse Definitions

In addition to frequency and period, repetitive pulse waveforms

are described by the amplitude (A), pulse width (tW) and duty
cycle. Duty cycle is the ratio of tW to T.
Volts

Pulse
width
Amplitude (A) (tW)

Time
Period, T

Note that varying tW does not change the period T, hence the
frequency does not change.
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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Determine the period, the frequency and the duty cycle of the periodic digital
waveform shown below. The measurements are in milliseconds.
Period, T
Pulse
width
(tW)

0 1 10 11

(a) The period T = 10 ms.

(b) The frequency f = 1/T = 1/10ms = 100 Hz.

(c) Duty cycle

8
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Timing Diagrams

A timing diagram is used to show the relationship between

two or more digital waveforms,
Clock

A diagram like this can be observed

directly on a logic analyzer.

9
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Serial and Parallel Data

Data can be transmitted by either serial transfer or parallel

transfer.
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7
Computer Modem

1
Computer Printer
0

0
t0 t1

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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Serial and Parallel Data

(a) Determine the total time required to serially transfer the 8 bit contained in
the waveform A of the following figure, and indicate the sequence of bits.
The 100 kHz clock is used as reference.
(b) What is the total time to transfer the same 8 bits in parallel?

T = 1/f = 1/100 kHz = 10 μs

The total transfer time for 8 bits is T = 8 x10 μs = 80 μs

The parallel transfer time for 8 bits is 10 μs

10
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Basic Logic Functions

True only if ALL input

conditions are true.

True only if ONE OR MORE

input conditions are true.

Indicates the OPPOSITE condition.

11
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Basic System Functions

And, or, and not elements can be combined to form

various logic functions. A few examples are:
Comparator
A> B
The comparison function A
Two
binary A= B Outputs
numbers
B
A< B

Basic arithmetic functions Adder

A
Σ Sum
Two
binary
numbers
Cout Carry out
B
Carry in Cin

12
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Basic System Functions
HIGH
9 Encoder
The encoding function 8
7
Binary code
6
5 for 9 used for
Converts information such 4
3
storage and/or
computation
as a decimal number or 7 8 9
2
1
0
alphabetic character into 4
1
5
2
6
3

some coded form 0 . +/–

Calculator keypad

Decoder

The decoding function

Binary input

7-segment display

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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Basic System Functions

The data selection function

Multiplexer Demultiplexer
A D
Data from Data from Data from Data from
A to D B to E C to F A to D
∆t1 ∆t1
∆t1 ∆t2 ∆t3 ∆t 1
B E
∆t2 ∆t 2
∆t3 ∆t3
C F

Switching Switching
sequence sequence
control input control input

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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Basic System Functions

The basic purpose for the counter is to count events representing

by changing levels or pulses. To count the counter must
remember the present number so that it can go to the next proper
number in sequence. Therefor storage capability is an important
characteristic of all counters, and Flip-Flops are generally used
to implement them.

Counter Parallel
output lines Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary
code code code code code
1 2 3 4 5 for 1 for 2 for 3 for 4 for 5
Input pulses Sequence of binary codes that represent
the number of input pulses counted.

…and other functions such as code conversion and storage.

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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Basic System Functions

One type of storage function is the shift register, that moves

and stores data each time it is clocked.
Serial bits
on input line
Initially, the register contains onlyinvalid
0101 0 0 0 0 data or all zeros as shown here.

First bit (1) is shifted serially into the

010 1 0 0 0 register.

Second bit (0) is shifted serially into

01 0 1 0 0 register and first bit is shifted right.

Third bit (1) is shifted into register and

0 1 0 1 0 the first and second bits are shifted right.

Fourth bit (0) is shifted into register and

0 1 0 1 the first, second, and third bits are shifted
right. The register now stores all four bits
and is full. 16
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Integrated Circuits

Cutaway view of DIP (Dual-In-line Pins) chip:

Plastic
Chip case

Pins

The TTL series, available as DIPs are popular for laboratory

experiments with logic.
The most common integrated circuit fabrication processes are
CMOS, Bipolar and BiCMOS. Process selection depends on the
application requirements 17
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Integrated Circuits

An example of laboratory prototyping is shown. The circuit

is wired using DIP chips and tested.

In this case, testing can DIP chips

be done by a computer
connected to the system.

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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Integrated Circuits

DIP chips and surface mount chips

Pin 1

Dual in-line package Small outline IC (SOIC)

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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Integrated Circuits

Other surface mount packages:

End view End view End view

SOIC PLCC LCCC

Small Outline Chip Plastic-Leaded Chip Carrier Leadedless-Ceramic Chip Carrier

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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Test and Measurement Instruments

The front panel controls for a general-purpose oscilloscope.

Both analog and digital scopes exist.

VERTIC A L HO RIZO N TAL TRIG G ER

CH1 CH 2 BO TH SLO PE
Ð +

PO SITIO N PO SITIO N PO SITIO N LEVEL

VO LTS/D IV VO LTS/D IV SEC /D IV SO URC E

CH 1
CH 2
EXT
5V 2 mV 5V 2 mV 5s 5 ns
LINE
C O UPLIN G C O UPLIN G
A C -DC -G ND A C -DC -G ND TRIG C O UP
DC AC

D ISPLAY
PRO BE C O M P CH1 CH2 EXT TRIG
5V

IN TEN SITY

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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Vertical section
For measuring digital
Summary
Sig na l c o up ling Vo lts/Di v
signals, use DC coupling
AC
Am p
D isplay section
DC G ND
Ch 1 C o nve rsio n/sto ra g e
Test and Measurement Instruments (Dig ita l sc o p e s o nly)

Ve rtic a l Ana lo g
p o sitio n o nly
AC
Am p
DC G ND Inte nsity
Ch 2 C o nve rsio n/sto ra g e
(Dig ita l sc o p e s o nly)
Dig ita l
o nly

H orizontal
Trigger section section
Exte rna l trig g e r Trig g e r
c o up ling so urc e T rig g e r C o ntro l a nd p ro c e ss
leve l a nd (Dig ita l sc o p e s o nly)
AC slo p e
Exte rna l Ch 2 Se c /Div
trig g e r DC Ch 1
Trig g e r
c irc uits Tim e b a se
Ext
Line Ho rizo nta l
p o sitio n
Normally, trigger on the slower of two
Po we r sup p ly
AC waveforms when comparing signals.
DC to a ll se c tio ns
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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Test and Measurement Instruments

The logic analyzer can display multiple channels of digital

information or show data in tabular form.

23
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Test and Measurement Instruments O FF
0.01 V
V
Hz

The DMM can make three basic mV

electrical measurements.
A Ra n g e
A u to ra n g e 1s

To u c h /Ho ld 1s
10 A
V

Voltage
40 m A COM

Fuse d

Resistance
Current

In digital work, DMMs are useful for checking power

supply voltages, verifying resistors, testing continuity,
and occasionally making other measurements.

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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Programmable Logic

Programmable logic devices (PLDs) are an alternative to

fixed function devices. The logic can be programmed for a
specific purpose. In general, they cost less and use less
board space that fixed function devices.
A PAL device is a form of PLD that uses a combination
of a programmable AND array and a fixed OR array:

Fixed OR
Programmable array and
AND array
output logic

25
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Selected Key Terms

Analog Being continuous or having continuous values.

Digital Related to digits or discrete quantities; having a set
of discrete values.
Binary Having two values or states; describes a number
system that has a base of two and utilizes 1 and 0
as its digits.
Bit A binary digit, which can be a 1 or a 0.
Pulse A sudden change from one level to another,
followed after a time, called the pulse width, by a
sudden change back to the original level.
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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Selected Key Terms

Clock A basic timing signal in a digital system; a periodic

waveform used to synchronize actions.
Gate A logic circuit that performs a basic logic
operations such as AND or OR.
NOT A basic logic function that performs inversion.
AND A basic logic operation in which a true (HIGH)
output occurs only when all input conditions are
true (HIGH).
OR A basic logic operation in which a true (HIGH)
output occurs when when one or more of the input
conditions are true (HIGH).
27
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Selected Key Terms

Fixed-function A category of digital integrated circuits having

logic functions that cannot be altered.
Programmable A category of digital integrated circuits capable of
logic being programmed to perform specified functions.

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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Quiz1
1- A quantity having continuous value is

(a) a digital quantity.

(b) an analog quantity.
(c) a binary quantity.
(d) a natural quantity.

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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Quiz1
2- The term bit means

(a) a small amount of data.

(b) a 1 or a 0.
(c) a binary digit.
(d) Both answers (b) and (c).

28
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Quiz1
3- a time interval on the leading edge of a pulse
between 10% and 90%of the amplitude is the

(a) rise time.

(b) fall time.
(c) pulse width.
(d) period.

28
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Quiz1
4- a pulse in a certain waveform occurs every 10 ms. The
frequency is

(a) 1 kHz.
(b) 1 Hz.
(c) 100 Hz.
(d) 10 Hz.

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Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Quiz1
5- In a certain digital waveform, the period is twice the pulse
width. The duty cycle is

(a) 100%
(b) 200%
(c) 50%
(d) 20%

28
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Quiz1
6- An inverter

(a) Performs the not operation

(b) Changes a HIGH to a LOW.
(c) Change a LOW to a HIGH.
(d) Does all of the above.

28
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Quiz1
7- The output of an AND gate is HIGH when

(a) Any input is HIGH

(b) All inputs are HIGH.
(c) No inputs are HIGH.
(d) Both answers (a) and (b).

28
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Quiz1
8- The output of an OR gate is HIGH when

(a) Any input is HIGH

(b) All inputs are HIGH.
(c) No inputs are HIGH.
(d) Both answers (a) and (b).

28
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Quiz1
9- The device used to convert a binary number to a 7-segment
display format is the

(a) multiplexer
(b) encoder.
(c) decoder.
(d) register

28
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Quiz1
10- An example of a date storage device is

(a) The logic gate.

(b) The flip-flop.
(c) The comparator.
(d) The register.
(e) Both answers (b) and (d).

28
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved