Research Design :

Meaning of Research Design:

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis
of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.”
The research design is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data.
As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from
writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of
data.
 The design decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, we may split the overall
research design into the following parts:
 Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, we may split the overall research
design into the following parts:

(a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for
the given study;

(b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are
to be made;

(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to
be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed;

(d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
Important features of a research design :
(i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
(ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analysing the data.
(iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints.

In brief, research design must, at least, contain—

(a) a clear statement of the research problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
(c) the population to be studied;
(d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.
 Need for research design

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the

various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money.
We need a research design in advance of data collection and analysis for our
research project.
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for
collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis,
keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time
and money.
Appropriate design must be prepared before starting research operations.
The design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will
be possible for him to look for flaws and inadequacies.
 FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN
A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient,
economical and so on.
Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analysed is considered a good design.

The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best
design in many investigations. Similarly, a design which yields maximal information
and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is
considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research
problems.

One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research problems.
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:

(i) the means of obtaining information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) the objective of the problem to be studied;
(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and
(v) the availability of time and money for the research work.
 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Dependent and independent variables:

A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable.

As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of variables.
Qualitative (or the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or
absence of the concerning attribute(s).
Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal
points are called ‘continuous variables’. But all variables are not continuous.
If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variables
or in statistical language ‘discrete variables’.

Age is an example of continuous variable,

but the number of children is an example of
non-continuous variable.
If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable,
it is termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent
to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable.

If we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent

variable and age is an independent variable.
Readymade films and lectures are examples of independent variables,
whereas behavioural changes, occurring as a result of the environmental
manipulations, are examples of dependent variables.
2. Extraneous variable:

Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect
the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.

Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship
between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts.
In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studies
achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social
studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study
undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable.
3. Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the
influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we
design the study minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables.
In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to restrain experimental
conditions.

4. Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is
said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).

5. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by

scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a
predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a
research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable.
Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships that are
assumed but not to be tested, are not termed research
hypotheses.
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research:
When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is
termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can be of the experimental
design or of the non-experimental design.

Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is

termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a research in
which an independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research’.

• A continuous variable is that which can assume any numerical

value within a specific range.
• A variable for which the individual values fall on the scale only
with distinct gaps is called a discrete variable
7. Experimental and control groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing
research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a
‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to some novel or special
condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’.

8. Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and

control groups are put are usually referred to as ‘treatments’.

9. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical

hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment.

10. Experimental unit(s):The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where

different treatments are used, are known as experimental units.
Research is often classified into different categories such as :
qualitative and quantitative and pure and applied.

• qualitative and quantitative classification is based on the type of data and

methods used
and

• pure and applied classification is based on the goal of the research.

Thus, the key difference between pure and applied research depends on their
goal; pure research is conducted without a specific goal in mind whereas applied
research conducted with the aim of solving a problem.
Quantitative Research :As the name implies, this type of research pertains to studying
social behavior through techniques that have computational basis. The tools in a
quantitative research are mathematical in nature, and measurements form the backbone of
any quantitative research.
These measurements provide the basis for observation and recording of data that can be
later analyzed quantitatively. Rather than being subjective, quantitative research yields data
that is more or less unbiased and can be expressed in numerical terms such as percentages
or statistics that is easily understandable for a layman. Researcher utilizes the results to
make generalizations about a larger set of population.
Qualitative Research: This is a kind of research that employs different ways of gathering
information without making use of any scientific measurement tools. For example, the
sources of information could be varied like diary accounts, surveys, and questionnaires
containing open ended questions, interviews that are not structured and also such
observations that are not structured.
The data collected through qualitative research is not expressed in mathematical terms. It is
descriptive in nature and its analysis is also harder than finding one’s way through a maze
of statistical tools. Case studies and ethnography seem to be perfect for utilizing qualitative
research tools.
Qualitative vs Quantitative Research:
1.The design of study is not ready beforehand and develops and unfolds gradually in a
qualitative research while the design and structure are already present in quantitative
research.

2.Data generated in quantitative research is numerically expressed in percentages and

numbers while data obtained through qualitative research is in the form of text or
picture.

3.Data in quantitative research is efficient but may not be able to capture the true
essence of human nature and behavior while qualitative data in words can capture the
human nature in totality.

4.Results of quantitative research are quantifiable while the results of a qualitative

research are subjective in nature.
 Pure and Applied Research
What is Pure Research?
Pure research, also known as fundamental or basic research, is
conducted without any specific goal in mind. The main aim of pure
research is to advance knowledge and to identify or explain the
relationship between variables. Thus, it advances fundamental
knowledge about the world, and introduce new theories, ideas, and
principals as well as new ways of thinking. Pure research is the
source of most new information and ways of thinking in the world.
Pure research is driven by curiosity, intuition(the ability to understand
or know something without conscious reasoning), and interest, and is
more exploratory in nature than applied research. Sometimes pure
research can act as a foundation for applied research.
What is Applied Research?

Applied research, unlike pure research, is conducted in order to solve

a specific and practical problem. Therefore, it tends to be descriptive
in nature. However, applied research is often based on basic research
or pure research. Since it is involved in solving practical problems, it
often includes empirical methods(In empirical research, data
collection is done through observation and experimentation).
Applied research is used in a variety of fields such as medicine,
technology, education, or agriculture. Studying the relationship
between genetics and cancer, observing the behavior of children to
identify the effectiveness of various interventions are some examples
of applied research studies. Such studies always have a specific goal.
Moreover, the results of applied research are usually intended for
present use, not for future. It is also important to note that applied
research studies are always based on the information or theories
discovered through basic research.
 Exploratory or Formulative Research

Exploratory research is a research method used to investigate research problems

that aren't clearly defined or understood.

Exploratory research is not used to obtain data to answer a research question, but
instead to provide a deeper context to a research question. It can therefore be
thought of as the groundwork for other types of research.

Methods of Exploratory Research

There are two main methods of research that can be employed:
Primary research methods and Secondary research methods.
Primary Research Methods:
Primary research methods involve collecting data directly from subjects. These subjects could be
individuals or a group of people. These are a few different types of primary research methods used in
exploratory research:
•Observations: Observational research involves collecting data by simply observing subjects without
doing anything to influence their behavior.
•Interviews: One-on-one interviews conducted between an interviewer and a subject can provide the
researcher with in-depth qualitative information on the research problem.
•Focus Groups: A focus group is a small group of carefully selected participants that have certain
common characteristics. Their reactions, responses, and conversations are studied to get an in-depth
understanding of a research problem.
•Surveys: Surveys involve collecting information using questionnaires with a set of questions
regarding the topic being studied.
For example:
An FMCG company wants to know how it’s consumer react to the new
shape of their product. The researcher observes the customers first
reaction and collects the data, which is then used to draw inferences from
the collective information.
Secondary Research Methods:

Secondary Research involves collecting information using already existing data.

These are a few different types of secondary research methods used in exploratory
research:
•Case Studies: A case study is a detailed examination of a particular case within a
real-world context. This source of secondary data allows researchers to analyze
existing cases regarding the research problem they are studying.
For example: A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest success rate for
performing knee surgeries. A lot of other hospitals or doctors have taken up this case
to understand and benchmark the method in which this surgeon does the procedure to
increase their success rate.
•Literature: Literature research involves gathering data from sources such as
newspapers, magazines, online sources, books from libraries, government documents,
articles, annual reports, and public records and statistics.
For example: A company has low sales. It can be easily explored from available
statistics and market literature if the problem is market related or organization related
or if the topic being studied is regarding financial situation of the country, then
research data can be accessed through government documents or commercial sources.
•Online Sources: The internet has a vast amount of information
available on almost any topic. It is one of the fastest ways to gather
information in a cost-effective way. It can, however, contain an
abundance of unreliable information as well. Hence, when using this
method of data collection, researchers must verify the authenticity and
reliability of the sources they are referring to.
For example: A researcher needs to find out what is the percentage of
people that prefer a specific brand phone. The researcher just enters the
information he needs in a search engine and gets multiple links with
related information and statistics.
Steps to conduct a research:

•Identify the problem: A researcher identifies the subject of research

and the problem is addressed by carrying out multiple methods to
answer the questions.
•Create the hypothesis: When the researcher has found out that there
are no prior studies and the problem is not precisely resolved, the
researcher will create a hypothesis based on the questions obtained
while identifying the problem.
•Further research: Once the data has been obtained, the researcher
will continue his study through descriptive investigation. Qualitative
methods are used to further study the subject in detail and find out if
the information is true or not.
 Descriptive Research
Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a
population, situation or phenomenon. It can
answer what, where, when and how questions but not why questions.
A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research
methods to investigate one or more variables. Unlike in experimental
research, the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the
variables, but only observes and measures them.

When to use a descriptive research design:

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to
identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.
It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before
you can research why something happens, you need to understand how,
when and where it happens.
 Descriptive research methods
Surveys :
Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for
frequencies, averages and patterns.
Common uses of surveys include:
•Describing the demographics of a country or region
•Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
•Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services
Observations:
Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to
rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by
psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life
situations. Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of
research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses, models or
theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under
investigation.
Case studies:
A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as
a person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data
to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to
identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.
Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on
unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal
something new about a research problem.
Some examples of descriptive research are:
1.A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to
understand what flavors of rubs are favored by different people. To understand the
preferred flavor palette, they conduct this type of research study using various
methods like observational methods in supermarkets. By also surveying while
collecting in-depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference of
different markets. This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to various
preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting this type of research helps the
organization tweak their business model and amplify marketing in core markets.

2.Another example of where this research can be used is if a school district wishes to
evaluate teachers’ attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting
surveys and observing their comfortableness using technology through observational
methods, the researcher can gauge what they can help understand if a full-fledged
implementation can face an issue. This also helps in understanding if the students are
impacted in any way with this change
Diagnostic Research

Diagnostic research is a type of research that is used to

identify the causes of a problem. It is often used in business,
healthcare, and education to identify the root cause of a
problem so that it can be solved. It provides an in-depth
understanding of issues to help find appropriate solutions.
What is Diagnostic Research?
Diagnostic research attempts to identify, examine and analyze problems to determine
their causes. It can be conducted in a variety of ways.
Diagnostic research plays an important role in medicine. It helps detect diseases early,
prevent illnesses, and personalize treatments.
•It typically involves collecting data about the problem. The data is gathered through
surveys, interviews, focus groups, or other methods.
•Once the data has been collected, it is analyzed to identify the factors that are
responsible for the problem. These factors may be individual, organizational, or
environmental.
•Once the factors are identified, they are addressed to solve the problem.
Diagnostic Research Design Meaning :
Diagnostic research design is the overall plan for conducting diagnostic research. It
includes the methods that will be used to collect and analyze data. It also involves the
ethical considerations that will be taken into account.
A good diagnostic research design is essential for conducting successful research. It
ensures that the research is conducted in a systematic and rigorous manner. It also
ensures that the results are valid and reliable.
Diagnostic Research Design Example : design for a study on low student achievement in maths:
•Problem: The problem that the study is trying to solve is low student achievement in maths.
•Research Questions: The study will address the following research questions:
• What are the factors that are contributing to low student achievement in maths?
• What are the most effective interventions for improving student achievement in maths?
•Methods: The study will use a mixed-methods approach. This means that it will use both
quantitative and qualitative methods to collect data.
• The quantitative data will be collected through a survey of students, teachers, and
administrators.
• The qualitative data will be collected through interviews with students, teachers, and
administrators.
•Analysis: The quantitative data will be analyzed using statistical methods. The qualitative data
will be analyzed using thematic analysis.
•Ethical Considerations: The study will take into account the following ethical considerations:
• The participants will be informed about the study. They will give their consent to take
part.
• The participants' privacy will be protected.
Evaluation Studies
Evaluation research is the systematic assessment of the worth or
merit of time, money, effort and resources spent in order to
achieve a goal.
Evaluation research is a type of applied research, and so it is
intended to have some real-world effect. Many methods like
surveys and experiments can be used to do evaluation research.
The process of evaluation research consisting of data analysis
and reporting is a rigorous, systematic process that involves
collecting data about organizations, processes, projects, services,
and/or resources. Evaluation research enhances knowledge and
decision-making, and leads to practical applications.

For example, before you start an exercise program, get a

medical evaluation, to make sure you're able to handle the
activity.
 Action Research
Action research is a research method that aims to simultaneously
investigate and solve an issue. In other words, as its name suggests,
action research conducts research and takes action at the same time.
Action research is a strategy that tries to find realistic solutions to organizations’
difficulties and issues. It is similar to applied research.
Action research refers basically learning by doing. First, a problem is identified, then
some actions are taken to address it, then how well the efforts worked are measured,
and if the results are not satisfactory, the steps are applied again.
It can be put into three different groups:
•Positivist: This type of research is also called “classical action research.” It considers
research a social experiment. This research is used to test theories in the actual world.
•Interpretive: This kind of research is called “contemporary action research.” It thinks
that business reality is socially made, and when doing this research, it focuses on the
details of local and organizational factors.
•Critical: This action research cycle takes a critical reflection approach to corporate
systems and tries to enhance them.
Stages of action research
•Plan
•Act
•Observe
•Reflect
Stage 1: Plan
For an action research project to go well, the researcher needs to plan it well. After coming up with
an educational research topic or question after a research study, the first step is to develop an action
plan to guide the research process. The research design aims to address the study’s question. The
research strategy outlines what to undertake, when, and how.
Stage 2: Act
The next step is implementing the plan and gathering data. At this point, the researcher must select
how to collect and organize research data. The researcher also needs to examine all tools and
equipment before collecting data to ensure they are relevant, valid, and comprehensive.
Stage 3: Observe
Data observation is vital to any investigation. The action researcher needs to review the project’s
goals and expectations before data observation. This is the final step before drawing conclusions and
taking action. Different kinds of graphs, charts, and networks can be used to represent the data. It
assists in making judgments or progressing to the next stage of observing.
Stage 4: Reflect
This step involves applying a prospective solution and observing the results. It’s essential to see if
the possible solution found through research can really solve the problem being studied.
The researcher must explore alternative ideas when the action research project’s solutions fail to
solve the problem.
The steps to conducting action research:
Action research is a systematic approach researchers, educators, and practitioners use to
identify and address problems or challenges within a specific context. It involves a
cyclical process of planning, implementing, reflecting, and adjusting actions based on
the data collected. Here are the general steps involved in conducting an action research
process:

•Identify the action research question or problem

•Plan the research
•Collect data
•Analyze the data
•Reflect on the findings
•Develop an action plan
•Implement the action plan
•Evaluate and monitor progress
•Reflect and iterate
 Experimental Research
Experimental research is a form of comparative analysis in
which you study two or more variables and observe a group
under a certain condition or groups experiencing different
conditions. By assessing the results of this type of study, you can
determine correlations between the variables applied and their
effects on each group. Experimental research uses the scientific
method to find preferable ways of accomplishing a task for
providing a service.

There are three primary types of experimental design:

•Pre-experimental research design
•True experimental research design
•Quasi-experimental research design
Analytical Study or Statistical Method

Statistical methods involved in carrying out a study include planning,

designing, collecting data, analysing, drawing meaningful
interpretation and reporting of the research findings. The statistical
analysis gives meaning to the meaningless numbers, thereby breathing
life into a lifeless data.

The practice of gathering and analyzing data to identify patterns and trends is
known as statistical analysis. It is a method for eliminating bias from data
evaluation by using numerical analysis. Data analytics and data analysis are
closely related processes that involve extracting insights from data to make
informed decisions.
And these statistical analysis methods are beneficial for gathering research
interpretations, creating statistical models, and organizing surveys and studies.
Types of Statistical Analysis

•Descriptive Analysis
Descriptive statistical analysis involves collecting, interpreting, analyzing, and
summarizing data to present them in the form of charts, graphs, and tables. Rather
than drawing conclusions, it simply makes the complex data easy to read and
understand.
•Inferential Analysis
The inferential statistical analysis focuses on drawing meaningful conclusions on the
basis of the data analyzed. It studies the relationship between different variables or
makes predictions for the whole population.
•Predictive Analysis
Predictive statistical analysis is a type of statistical analysis that analyzes data to
derive past trends and predict future events on the basis of them. It uses machine
learning algorithms, data mining, data modelling, and artificial intelligence to conduct
the statistical analysis of data.
•Prescriptive Analysis
The prescriptive analysis conducts the analysis of data and prescribes the best course
of action based on the results. It is a type of statistical analysis that helps you make an
informed decision.
•Exploratory Data Analysis
Exploratory analysis is similar to inferential analysis, but the difference is that it
involves exploring the unknown data associations. It analyzes the potential
relationships within the data.
•Causal Analysis
The causal statistical analysis focuses on determining the cause and effect relationship
between different variables within the raw data. In simple words, it determines why
something happens and its effect on other variables. This methodology can be used by
businesses to determine the reason for failure.
Statistical Analysis Methods
Although there are various methods used to perform data analysis, given below are the 5
most used and popular methods of statistical analysis:
• Mean
Mean or average mean is one of the most popular methods of statistical analysis. Mean
determines the overall trend of the data and is very simple to calculate. Mean is calculated by
summing the numbers in the data set together and then dividing it by the number of data
points. Despite the ease of calculation and its benefits, it is not advisable to resort to mean as
the only statistical indicator as it can result in inaccurate decision making.
•Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is another very widely used statistical tool or method. It analyzes the
deviation of different data points from the mean of the entire data set. It determines how data
of the data set is spread around the mean. You can use it to decide whether the research
outcomes can be generalized or not.
•Regression
Regression is a statistical tool that helps determine the cause and effect relationship between
the variables. It determines the relationship between a dependent and an independent variable.
It is generally used to predict future trends and events.
•Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing can be used to test the validity or trueness of a conclusion or
argument against a data set. The hypothesis is an assumption made at the beginning
of the research and can hold or be false based on the analysis results.
•Sample Size Determination
Sample size determination or data sampling is a technique used to derive a sample
from the entire population, which is representative of the population. This method is
used when the size of the population is very large. You can choose from among the
various data sampling techniques such as snowball sampling, convenience
sampling, and random sampling.
Statistical Analysis Examples
Look at the standard deviation sample calculation given below to understand more about statistical
analysis.
The weights of 5 pizza bases in cms are as follows:

Particulars (Weight in Square of Mean

Mean Deviation
cms) Deviation

9 9-6.4 = 2.6 (2.6)2 = 6.76

2 2-6.4 = - 4.4 (-4.4)2 = 19.36

5 5-6.4 = - 1.4 (-1.4)2 = 1.96

4 4-6.4 = - 2.4 (-2.4)2 = 5.76

12 12-6.4 = 5.6 (5.6)2 = 31.36

Calculation of Mean = (9+2+5+4+12)/5 = 32/5 = 6.4

Calculation of mean of squared mean deviation

= (6.76+19.36+1.96+5.76+31.36)/5 = 13.04

Sample Variance = 13.04

Standard deviation = √13.04 = 3.611

Historical Research
Historical research is a process of collecting and interpreting data about past events or
ideas in order to find how they affected the present events and ideas. It studies possible
reasons behind certain events to explain their influence on the events that followed.

Primary sources may

include diaries, letters,
interviews, oral histories,
photographs, newspaper
articles, government
documents, poems,
novels, plays, and music.
The collection and
analysis of primary
sources is central to
historical research.
Surveys are a method of gathering information
from a group of individuals by asking them
questions.
A case study is a detailed study of a specific
subject, such as a person, group, place, event,
organization, or phenomenon.
A case study is an appropriate research
design when you want to gain concrete,
contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific
real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key
characteristics, meanings, and implications of the
case.
Case studies are often a good choice in
a thesis or dissertation
Case study examples
Research question Case study
What are the ecological effects of wolf Case study of wolf reintroduction in Yellowstone
reintroduction? National Park

How do populist politicians use narratives about Case studies of Hungarian prime minister Viktor
history to gain support? Orbán and US president Donald Trump

How can teachers implement active learning Case study of a local school that promotes active
strategies in mixed-level classrooms? learning

What are the main advantages and disadvantages of Case studies of three rural wind farm development
wind farms for rural communities? projects in different parts of the country

How are viral marketing strategies changing the Case study of the iPhone X marketing campaign
relationship between companies and consumers?
Step 1: Select a case
Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions you should
be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study
should have the potential to:
•Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
•Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
•Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
•Open up new directions for future research
Step 2: Build a theoretical framework
While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should
usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not
just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It
might aim to:
•Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
•Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be
incorporated
•Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established
assumptions
Step 3: Collect your data
There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject.
Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such
as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g.,
newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also
collect quantitative data.
Step 4: Describe and analyze the case
In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give
as complete a picture as possible of the subject.
How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some
case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate
sections or chapters for the methods, results and discussion.
Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various
angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual
analysis or discourse analysis).
In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back
to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.
Field Studies

Field research is a process where data is collected through a qualitative method. The
objective of field study is to observe and interpret the subject of study in its natural
environment. It is used in the field of study of humans and health care professions.

For example, nature conservationists observe behavior of animals in their natural

surroundings and the way they react to certain scenarios. In the same way, social
scientists conducting field research may conduct interviews or observe people from a
distance to understand how they behave in a social environment and how they react to
situations around them.
Methods of Field Research
Field research is typically conducted in 5 distinctive methods.
• Direct Observation
In this method, the data is collected via an observational method or subjects in a
natural environment. In this method, the behavior or outcome of situation is not
interfered in any way by the researcher.
•Participant Observation
In this method of field research, the researcher is deeply involved in the research
process, not just purely as an observer, but also as a participant. This method too
is conducted in a natural environment but the only difference is the researcher
gets involved in the discussions and can mold the direction of the discussions. In
this method, researchers live in a comfortable environment with the participants
of the research design to make them comfortable and open up to in-depth
discussions.
•Ethnography
Ethnography is an expanded observation of social research and social perspective and
the cultural values of an entire social setting. In ethnography, entire communities are
observed objectively. For example, if a researcher would like to understand how an
Amazon tribe lives their life and operates, he/she may chose to observe them or live
amongst them and silently observe their day-to-day behavior.
•Qualitative Interviews
Qualitative interviews are close-ended questions that are asked directly to the research
subjects. The qualitative interviews could be either informal and conversational, semi-
structured, standardized and open-ended or a mix of all the above three. This provides a
wealth of data to the researcher that they can sort through. This also helps collect
relational data. This method of field research can use a mix of one-on-one
interviews, focus groups and text analysis.
•Case Study
A case study research is an in-depth analysis of a person, situation or event. This method may
look difficult to operate, however, it is one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it
involves a deep dive and thorough understanding the data collection methods and inferring the
data.
Steps in Conducting Field Research
Due to the nature of field research, the magnitude of timelines and costs involved, field research
can be very tough to plan, implement and measure. Some basic steps in the management of field
research are:
Build the Right Team:
To be able to conduct field research, having the right team is important. The role of the researcher
and any ancillary team members is very important and defining the tasks they have to carry out with
defined relevant milestones is important. It is important that the upper management too is vested in
the field research for its success.

Recruiting People for the Study:

The success of the field research depends on the people that the study is being conducted on.
Using sampling methods, it is important to derive the people that will be a part of the study.

Data Collection Methodology: As spoken in length about above, data collection methods for field
research are varied. They could be a mix of surveys, interviews, case studies and observation. All
these methods have to be chalked out and the milestones for each method too have to be chalked out
at the outset. For example, in the case of a survey, the survey design is important that it is created
and tested even before the research begins.
Site Visit:
A site visit is important to the success of the field research and it is always conducted
outside of traditional locations and in the actual natural environment of the
respondent/s. Hence, planning a site visit along with the methods of data collection is
important.
Data Analysis:
Analysis of the data that is collected is important to validate the premise of the field
research and decide the outcome of the field research.
Communicating Results:
Once the data is analyzed, it is important to communicate the results to the
stakeholders of the research so that it could be actioned upon.