CET204M2
CET204M2
CET204M2
Aggregates Properties
IRC 37:2018
• Comparison
a) Both tar and bitumen are black / brown in colour.
b) Chemical constituents are different. Tar is obtained by
destructive
distillation of coal whereas bitumen is obtained as a
byproduct of petroleum.
c) Bitumen is soluble in C Cl₄ and CS₂ whereas tar is soluble in toluene.
d) Tar coats the aggregates better than bitumen in presence of water.
e) Carbon content is more in tar than bitumen.
Bitumen– Desirable properties
i. The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction
should be adequate. This is achieved by heating the bitumen
and aggregates prior to mixing.
ii. The bituminous materials should not be highly temperature
susceptible. During the hottest weather of the region the
bituminous mix should not become too soft or unstable. During
cold weather the mix should not become too hard and
brittle, causing cracks of surface.
iii. In presence of water the bitumen should not strip off from the
aggregate. There has to be adequate affinity and adhesion
between the bitumen and aggregate used in the mix.
Tests on Bitumen
• Penetration test
• Ductility test
• Softening point test
• Specific gravity test
• Viscosity test
• Flash and fire test
• Float test
• Water content test
• Loss on heating test
Penetration test
•It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a
millimeter to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds.
•The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of 100g and a device
for releasing and locking in any position.
•The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured into
containers at a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the expected penetration.
•The test should be conducted at a specified temperature of 25 C.
•A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the range 40 to 50 at standard
test conditions.
•In hot climates, a lower penetration grade is preferred.
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Ductility test
17
Softening point test
•Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of
softening under the specifications of test.
•The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus.
•A brass ring containing test sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerin
at a given temperature.
•A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is heated at a rate of
5 C per minute.
•Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal plate which is at a
specified distance below.
•Generally, higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is
preferred in hot climates.
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Specific gravity test
•The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of given volume of bitumen
of known content to the mass of equal volume of water at 27 C.
•The specific gravity can be measured using either pycnometer or preparing a cube
specimen of bitumen in semi solid or solid state.
•The specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02.
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Viscosity test
•Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and it is a measure of resistance
to flow.
•At the application temperature, this characteristic greatly influences the strength of
resulting paving mixes.
•Orifice type viscometers are used to indirectly find the viscosity of liquid binders like
cutbacks and emulsions.
•The viscosity expressed in seconds is the time taken by the 50 ml bitumen material to pass
through the orifice of a cup, under standard test conditions and specified temperature.
•Viscosity of a cutback can be measured with either 4.0 mm orifice at 25 C or 10 mm orifice
at 25 or 40 C.
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Flash and fire point test
•At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen materials leave out volatiles.
•These volatiles catches fire which is very hazardous and therefore it is essential to qualify
this temperature for each bitumen grade.
•BIS defined the flash point as the temperature at which the vapour of bitumen
momentarily catches fire in the form of flash under specified test conditions.
•The fire point is defined as the lowest temperature under specified test conditions at which
the bituminous material gets ignited and burns.
21
Float test
•Normally the consistency of bituminous material can be measured either by penetration test
or viscosity test.
•But for certain range of consistencies, these tests are not applicable and Float test is used.
•The apparatus consists of an aluminum float and a brass collar filled with bitumen to be
tested.
•The specimen in the mould is cooled to a temperature of 5C and screwed in to float.
•The total test assembly is floated in the water bath at 50C and the time required for water to
pass its way through the specimen plug is noted in seconds and is expressed as the float
value.
22
Water content test
•It is desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water content to prevent foaming of the
bitumen when it is heated above the boiling point of water.
•The water in a bitumen is determined by mixing known weight of specimen in a pure
petroleum distillate free from water, heating and distilling of the water.
•The weight of the water condensed and collected is expressed as percentage by weight of
the original sample.
•The allowable maximum water content should not be more than 0.2% by weight.
23
Loss on heating test
•When the bitumen is heated it loses the volatility and gets hardened.
•About 50gm of the sample is weighed and heated to a temperature of 163C for 5hours in a
specified oven designed for this test.
•The sample specimen is weighed again after the heating period and loss in weight is
expressed as percentage by weight of the original sample.
•Bitumen used in pavement mixes should not indicate more than 1% loss in weight, but for
bitumen having penetration values 150-200 up to 2% loss in weight is allowed.
24
Pavement materials – Subgrade Soil
• Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived naturally
from the disintegration of rocks.
• The supporting soil beneath pavement and its under courses is called
subgrade soil.
Subgrade soil– Desirable properties
i. Stability
ii. Incompressibility
iii.Permanency of strength
iv. Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions
of weather and ground water.
v. Good drainage
vi. Ease of compaction
Tests on Soil
• Shear tests
• Bearing tests
• Penetration tests
Flexible and Rigid pavements
•The California Bearing Ratio(CBR) test is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of standard
plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions.
•It was developed by the California Division of Highways as a method of classifying and evaluating soil-
subgrade and base course materials for flexible pavements.
•Test consists of causing a cylindrical plunger of 50mm diameter to penetrate a pavement component material
at 1.25mm/minute.
•This load is expressed as a percentage of standard load value at a respective deformation level to obtain CBR
value.
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Apparatus
•Loading machine-any compression machine that can operate at constant rate of 1.25mm
per minute can be used.
•Cylindrical moulds- moulds of 150mm diameter and 175mm height provided with a collar
of about 50mm length and detachable perforated base.
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Procedure
36
Procedure
37
Procedure
• O.J.Porter developed charts corelating traffic and thickness and this was used by California
division.
• Thickness of pavement,
Sub-base course
t sb
CBR METHOD – Recommended by IRC
Data Required: Total Pavement thickness can be
• CBR value of soil subgrade calculated using the following chart:
• CBR value of sub base course
• CBR value of base course
• Traffic intensity(A to G)
CBR METHOD – Recommended by IRC
• Using CBR value of soil subgrade and traffic
intensity, find the total thickness of pavement, T
• Using the CBR value of sub-base course, find
the thickness from top of pavement to sub-base
course. t sb = T - x
• Using the CBR value of base course, find the
thickness from top of pavement to base course.
tb = x - y
• Thickness of surface course can be calculated
by, t s = T-(tb+ tsb )
y ts Surface course
x Base course
T tb
Sub-base course
t sb
CBR METHOD – Recommended by Empirical formulas
= 34.89cm
Problem -2
Soil subgrade sample was obtained from the project site and the CBR tests was
conducted in field density. The following were the results.
It is desired to use the following materials for different pavement layers.
i. Compacted sandy soil with 7% CBR
ii. Poorly graded gravel with 20% CBR
iii. Well graded gravel with 95% CBR
iv. Minimum thickness of bituminous concrete surfacing may be taken as 5cm.
The traffic survey revealed the present average daily traffic(ADT) of commercial vehicle
as 1200. The annual rate of growth of traffic is found to be 8%. The pavement
construction is to be completed in 3 years after the last traffic count.
a) Design the pavement section by CBR method as recommended by IRC, using all the
four pavement materials.
b) Suggest alternative design without using poorly graded gravel.
Discuss the limitation of CBR method of pavement design in the light of the above
results.
Answer
CBR value of subgrade soil
Area of plunger of diameter 5cm
π x 5²
= =19.6cm²
Load, kg
4
Load at 2.5mm penetration
= 55kg
Load at 5mm penetration
120
= 78kg
CBR value of soil at 2.5mm penetration
100
Load carries by specimen
= x 100
Load carries by standard specimen
80
78
5
= 5 x 100
137
60
55
= 4%
0
40
Load carries by specimen
= x 100
Load carries by standard specimen
7 20
= 8 x 100
205 2 4 6 8 10 14
12
= 3.8%
5 2.5 5
Penetration, cm
Adopt CBR value of subgrade soil as 4%
Design traffic is estimated by the equation,
A = P{1 + r}n+10
P=1200
r = 8% = 0.08
n=3
A = 1200{1 + 0.08}3+10 = 3260 vehicles per
day
Category F
From design chart,
Total pavement thickness, T = 550mm = 55cm
Bituminous surfacing
5 Bituminous surfacing
𝟏+𝐫
decimal (eg. For 6 percent annual growth rate,
𝟑𝟔𝟓 𝐧 −𝟏 xAxDx r = 0.06). If ‘r’ value is not given, it is assumed
N= �
� F
as 5%.
• Where, N = cumulative number of standard axles to
be catered for during the design period of ‘n’
years. Unit – msa(million standard axles) The traffic in the year of completion of construction may
be estimated using the equation,
A=P 𝟏
• A = initial traffic (commercial vehicles per day) in
𝐱
+𝐫
the year of completion of construction
• D = Lane distribution factor
• F = vehicle damage factor • Where, P = number of commercial vehicles per day as
• n = design period, in years. If ‘n’ value is not given, per last count.
it is taken as 20 years for NH, SH and urban
roads. For other roads design period of 15 • x = number of years between the last count and the year
years is recommended. of completion of construction.
IRC 37: 2018
• The load from the wheel is transmitted to the pavement
through tyres in the case of pneumatic wheels.
• Heavier vehicles are normally carried on larger number of
axles or wheels, thereby maintaining or even reducing
the individual loads.
• Standard axle load: It is a single axle load with dual wheel
carrying 80 KN load and the design of pavement is based
on the standard axle load.
• The standard design axle load adopted in India is 80kN
(single axle with dual wheels).
IRC 37: 2018
• Vehicle damage factor(VDF):
• It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles
per commercial vehicle.
• The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier to
convert the number of commercial vehicles
of different axle loads and axle configuration
into the of repetitions of standard axle load of
number
magnitude 80kN.
• If information on axle load is not available, VDF can
be assumed.
IRC 37: 2018
• Lane distribution factor(LDF): .
• Lateral distribution- Lateral distribution of commercial traffic on the carriageway is
required for estimating the design traffic (equivalent standard axle load applications) to
be considered for the structural design of pavement.
• The following lateral distribution factors may be considered for roads with different
types of the carriageway:
• Intermediate lane roads of width 5.50 m The design traffic should be based on 75 per
cent of the two-way commercial traffic.
•Two-lane two-way roads -The design should be based on 50 per cent of the total
number of commercial vehicles in both the directions.
•Four-lane single carriageway roads 40 per cent of the total number (sum) of
commercial vehicles in both directions should be considered for design.
•Dual carriageway roads- The design of dual two-lane carriageway roads should be
based on 75 per cent of the number of commercial vehicles in each direction.
•For dual three-lane carriageway and dual four-lane carriageway, the distribution
factors shall be 60 per cent and 45 per cent respectively
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Design of flexible pavements by IRC 37: 2018
Step 1: Compute the design traffic,
𝟏+𝐫
𝟑𝟔𝟓 𝐧 −𝟏 xAxDx
N= �
� F
= 8.03 x 10 6 csa
= 8.03 msa
CBR value of subgrade soil 6%
Total pavement thickness = 580mm = 58cm
Answer:
From bar chart,
Total pavement thickness = 578.48mm≈
580mm
𝐶' = 58cm
C 610
A x
𝐵'
530 B
D
5 8.03 10
x 610−530
=
8.03−5 10−5
x = 48.48
C' D= 530+48.48 = 578.48 ≈
580mm
Answer:
Similarly,
Thickness of subbase
𝐶' C 310
A x
𝐵'
280 B
D
5 8.03 10
x
=
310−280
x = 18.18 Wearing course
8.03−5 10−5
Binder course
C' D= 280+18.18 = 298.18 ≈ 300mm
Base
580
Thickness of subbase= = 300mm = 30cm
300 Sub-Base
Answer:
Similarly,
Thickness of base
𝐶' C 200
A x
𝐵'
150 B
D
5 8.03 10
x
8.03−5= 10−5
200−150
x = 30.3 Wearing course
Binder course
C' D= 150+30.3 = 180.3 ≈180mm
180 Base
580
Thickness of base= = 180mm = 18cm
300 Sub-Base
Answer:
Thickness of binder course = 50mm = 5cm
Thickness of wearing course = 50mm = 5cm
thickness=58cm
Total pavement
Base 50 Wearing course
Sub base
580
180 Base
Thickness = 30cm
300 Sub-Base
University Q
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CONSTRUCTION OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
•Components of Flexible Pavements
•Component layers of a flexible pavement laid over the subgrade are:
a) Granular sub-base and drainage layer
b) Granular base course
c) Bituminous binder course
d) Bituminous surface course
•On low-volume roads or village roads the typical components of flexible pavement may
consist of the following layers:
a) Granular sub-base or drainage layer
b) Granular base course
c) Thin bituminous surfacing
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Construction of Granular Sub-base Course/Drainage Layer
•The sub-base material is spread to uniform thickness and specified cross slope using a
motor grader by adjusting the blade of the grader
•The moisture content of the material is checked and the additional quantity of water
required to bring up to the optimum moisture content is sprinkled at an uniform rate using a
truck mounted sprinkler
•The watered material is mixed properly using machinery such as disc harrows and
rotavators
•The mixed material is spread to the desired thickness, grade and camber using a motor
grader with hydraulic controls of the blade
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Construction of Granular Sub-base Course/Drainage Layer
•Rolling is done starting from the lower edge and proceeded towards the centre of the
undivided carriageway or towards the upper edge of the divided carriageway,; the rolling
speed is limited to less than 5 kmph.
•Rolling is continued till at least 98 percent of maximum density of the material (for heavy
compaction as per IS: 2720 - Part 8) is achieved
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Construction of WMM Base
•Compaction test is carried out in the laboratory using the selected grade of WMM material
•The optimum moisture content of the WMM mix is determined in the laboratory under
heavy compaction
•The selected WMM mix (with water equal to the optimum moisture content added) is
prepared in a suitable mixing plant
•The WMM mix is transported to the site and is spread using a paver-finisher machine, to the
required thickness, grade and cross slope
•The WMM layer is compacted using a vibratory roller of minimum static weight of 10
tonnes, the compacted thickness of each layer should be less
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Construction of WMM Base
•Rolling is done starting from the lower edge and proceeded towards the centre of the
undivided carriageway or towards the upper edge of the divided carriageway; the rolling
speed is limited to less than 5 kmph.
•After compaction of the first layer, the second layer is laid by a mechanical paver- finisher
(preferably by a sensor-paver) and compacted by a vibratory roller as mentioned above
•The WMM surface is checked for defects, if any and allowed to dry; no traffic shall be
allowed before a bituminous surface course is constructed.
•After the WMM layer is dried for at least 24 hours in dry weather, the preparation for laying
a bituminous pavement layer may start by applying the prime coat
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Construction of BM Base/Binder Course
•The surface on which the BM base course is to be laid (i.e., the receiving surface) is
'prepared' by patching the pot-holes, filling up the depressions and making profile correction,
as required.
•The surface is cleaned with a mechanical broom to remove loose materials and dust
•The prime coat and tack coat are applied as specified if the receiving surface is granular sub-
base or base course; if it is a bituminous surface, a tack coat alone is sufficient
•After ensuring that the prepared surface is dry, the BM mix is prepared in a hot mix plant at
specified temperature, depending on the grade of the bitumen used.
•The hot mix is transported to the construction site in a clean, insulated covered truck.
87
Construction of BM Base/Binder Course
•BM mix is spread using a mechanical paver
•Rolling is started soon after laying the mix and compaction is to be completed before the mix
cools down to the minimum specified temperature
88
Construction of surface course/wearing course
•The receiving surface on which the dense graded bituminous mix is to be laid (such as
existing bituminous surface course or bituminous base/binder course) is prepared by
patching the pot-holes, sealing the cracks and filling up the depressions
•The laying of dense graded bituminous work is to be taken up during dry weather, free
from dampness on the receiving surface and when the atmospheric temperature is higher
than 10°C.
•The receiving surface is cleaned with a mechanical broom to remove loose materials and
dust and tack coat is applied as specified.
•The mix is spread using a hydrostatic paver finisher with sensor at specified paving
temperature
•The compacted density achieved is checked by taking 150 mm diameter core samples;
the density achieved shall preferably be 92 percent of theoretical maximum density of the
mix, so that the initial voids in the mix is about 7 to 8% and due to traffic induced
secondary compaction during the design life, the final voids in the mix is not lower than
4%.
•Finished surface shall not be opened to traffic until entire depth of bituminous later
cools down to temp below 60 deg C
• Prime Coat
It is the first application of low viscosity liquid bituminous material over
an existing porous pavement like WBM base course. Main objective is
to fill the capillary voids and to bond the loose materials.
• Tack Coat
Bituminous tack coat is the application of bituminous binder over an
existing pavement surface or a cement concrete or pervious pavement
already treated by primecoat.
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