CET204M2

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MODULE - 2

Aggregates Properties

Highway materials Bituminous materials


Tests
Subgrade soil

Flexible and Rigid pavements


Factors influencing design of flexible pavements
Design of flexible pavements
CBR method

IRC 37:2018

Construction of bituminous pavements


Pavement materials – Road
Aggregates
• Aggregate is the major component of materials used in road making.
• Itis used in bases and sub-bases, bituminous courses and in
cement concrete pavements.
• Natural aggregates for road making are obtained from rocks
• In India, road making aggregates fall into the following
geological groups:
i. Igneous rocks
ii. Sedimentary rocks
iii. Metamorphic rocks
Road Aggregates – Desirable
properties
i. Strength
The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to i) stress action due to
traffic wheel load, ii) Wear and tear, iii) Crushing. For a high quality
pavement, the aggregates should posses high resistance to crushing, and
to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.
ii. Hardness
The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant
rubbing or abrasion due to moving traffic. The aggregates should be
hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the movements of
traffic. The abrasive action is severe when steel tyred vehicles moves
over the aggregates exposed at the top surface.
Road Aggregates – Desirable
properties
iii. Toughness
Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness. Aggregates
used in the pavement should be able to resist the effect caused by the jumping
of the steel tyred wheels from one particle to another at different levels
causing severe impact on the aggregates.
iv. Shape of aggregates
Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range may have rounded,
cubical, angular, flaky or elongated particles. It is evident that flaky and
elongated particles will have less strength and durability when compared with
cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same aggregate. Hence too flaky
and too elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.
Road Aggregates – Desirable
properties
v. Adhesion with bitumen
The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with
water when compared with bituminous materials, otherwise the bituminous
coating on the aggregate will be stripped off in presence of water.
vi. Durability
The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action of weather is called
soundness. The aggregates are subjected to the physical and chemical action
of rain and bottom water, impurities there in and that of the atmosphere,
hence it is desirable that the road aggregates used in the construction should
be sound enough to withstand the weathering action.
Road Aggregates – Desirable
properties
vii. Freedom from deleterious particles
Specifications for aggregates used in bituminous mixes usually require
the aggregates to be clean, durable and tough in nature and free from
excess amount of flat or elongated pieces, dust, clay balls and other
objectionable materials.
Tests on Aggregates
• Crushing test
• Abrasion test
• Impact test
• Soundness test
• Shape test
• Specific gravity and water absorption test
• Bitumen adhesion test
CRUSHING TEST
• This test was standardized by IS:2386 part-IV.
• This test is used to determine the crushing strength of aggregates.
• The aggregate crushing value provides a relative of
measure resistance to crushing under gradually
applied crushing load.
• Test Procedure
• Dry aggregates passing through 12.5mm sieves and retained
10mm
sieves are filled in a cylindrical measure of 11.5cm diameter
and
18cm height in three layers.
• The sample is weighted(W₁ )and placed in the test cylinder in
three layers Each layer is tamped 25 times with a standard
tamping rod.
• The specimen is subjected to a compression load of
Aggregate crushing value = W₂ x 100
• 40tonnes
gradually applied at the rate W₁
of 4 tones per minute.

ABRASION TEST
• This test is used to determine the hardness of aggregates.
• This test measures the percentage wear due to the rubbing
action between the aggregates and steel balls used
as abrasive charge.
• Test Procedure
• The specified weight of aggregate specimen(5to10kg) is
placed in the machine along with the abrasive charge.
• The machine is rotated at a speed of 30 to 33rpm for the
specified number of revolutions.
• The abraded aggregate is then sieved on 1.7mm IS sieve
and the weight of powdered aggregate passing the sieve
is found.
W₂
• Los Angeles Abrasion value = W₁ x 100
IMPACT TEST
• This test is used to determine the resistance to impact
of aggregates.
• Test Procedure
• Dry aggregates passing through 12.5mm sieves and retained
on 10mm sieves are filled in a cylindrical
steel cup of internal diameter 10.2mm and depth 5cm
which is attached to a metal base of impact testing machine.
• The specimen is filled in three layers and each layer
is tamped 25 times with a standard tamping rod.
• Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14kg is arranged to drop with
a free fall 38cm by vertical guides and the test specimen
is subjected to 15 number of blows.
• Then the aggregate is sieved through 2.36mm IS sieve
and weight of passing material(W₂ )is measured.
• Aggregate impact value = W₂ x 100
W₁
SOUNDNESS TEST
• This test is used to determine the resistance of aggregates to weathering action.
• The aggregates are subjected to freezing and thawing(weathering test cycles).
• Test Procedure
• Clean the dry aggregate specimen of specified size range and it is
weighted and counted.
• Itis immersed in the saturated solution of sodium sulphate or
magnesium sulphate for 16 to 18 hours.
• Then the specimen is dried in an oven at 105-110ºc., the loss in weight
is determined by sieving thus making one cycle of immersion and drying.
• After completing the final cycle, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined
by sieving.
Pavement materials – Bituminous
materials
• Bituminous materials used in highway construction are divided into:
i. Tar
ii. Bitumen

• Comparison
a) Both tar and bitumen are black / brown in colour.
b) Chemical constituents are different. Tar is obtained by
destructive
distillation of coal whereas bitumen is obtained as a
byproduct of petroleum.
c) Bitumen is soluble in C Cl₄ and CS₂ whereas tar is soluble in toluene.
d) Tar coats the aggregates better than bitumen in presence of water.
e) Carbon content is more in tar than bitumen.
Bitumen– Desirable properties
i. The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction
should be adequate. This is achieved by heating the bitumen
and aggregates prior to mixing.
ii. The bituminous materials should not be highly temperature
susceptible. During the hottest weather of the region the
bituminous mix should not become too soft or unstable. During
cold weather the mix should not become too hard and
brittle, causing cracks of surface.
iii. In presence of water the bitumen should not strip off from the
aggregate. There has to be adequate affinity and adhesion
between the bitumen and aggregate used in the mix.
Tests on Bitumen
• Penetration test
• Ductility test
• Softening point test
• Specific gravity test
• Viscosity test
• Flash and fire test
• Float test
• Water content test
• Loss on heating test
Penetration test
•It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a
millimeter to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds.
•The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of 100g and a device
for releasing and locking in any position.
•The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured into
containers at a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the expected penetration.
•The test should be conducted at a specified temperature of 25 C.
•A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the range 40 to 50 at standard
test conditions.
•In hot climates, a lower penetration grade is preferred.

15
Ductility test

•Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great deformation or


elongation.
•Ductility is defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample or briquette of the
material will be elongated without breaking.
•Dimension of the briquette thus formed is exactly 1 cm square.
•The bitumen sample is heated and poured in the mould assembly placed on a plate.
•These samples with moulds are cooled in the air and then in water bath at 27 C temperature.
• The excess bitumen is cut and the surface is leveled using a hot knife.
•Then the mould with assembly containing sample is kept in water bath of the ductility
machine for about 90 minutes.
•The sides of the moulds are removed, the clips are hooked on the machine and the machine
is operated.
•The distance up to the point of breaking of thread is the ductility value which is reported in
cm.
16
•The ductility value gets affected by factors such as pouring temperature, test
temperature, rate of pulling etc.
•A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been specified by the BIS.

17
Softening point test
•Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of
softening under the specifications of test.
•The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus.
•A brass ring containing test sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerin
at a given temperature.
•A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is heated at a rate of
5 C per minute.
•Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal plate which is at a
specified distance below.
•Generally, higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is
preferred in hot climates.

18
Specific gravity test

•The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of given volume of bitumen
of known content to the mass of equal volume of water at 27 C.
•The specific gravity can be measured using either pycnometer or preparing a cube
specimen of bitumen in semi solid or solid state.
•The specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02.

19
Viscosity test
•Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and it is a measure of resistance
to flow.
•At the application temperature, this characteristic greatly influences the strength of
resulting paving mixes.
•Orifice type viscometers are used to indirectly find the viscosity of liquid binders like
cutbacks and emulsions.
•The viscosity expressed in seconds is the time taken by the 50 ml bitumen material to pass
through the orifice of a cup, under standard test conditions and specified temperature.
•Viscosity of a cutback can be measured with either 4.0 mm orifice at 25 C or 10 mm orifice
at 25 or 40 C.

20
Flash and fire point test
•At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen materials leave out volatiles.
•These volatiles catches fire which is very hazardous and therefore it is essential to qualify
this temperature for each bitumen grade.
•BIS defined the flash point as the temperature at which the vapour of bitumen
momentarily catches fire in the form of flash under specified test conditions.
•The fire point is defined as the lowest temperature under specified test conditions at which
the bituminous material gets ignited and burns.

21
Float test

•Normally the consistency of bituminous material can be measured either by penetration test
or viscosity test.
•But for certain range of consistencies, these tests are not applicable and Float test is used.
•The apparatus consists of an aluminum float and a brass collar filled with bitumen to be
tested.
•The specimen in the mould is cooled to a temperature of 5C and screwed in to float.
•The total test assembly is floated in the water bath at 50C and the time required for water to
pass its way through the specimen plug is noted in seconds and is expressed as the float
value.

22
Water content test

•It is desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water content to prevent foaming of the
bitumen when it is heated above the boiling point of water.
•The water in a bitumen is determined by mixing known weight of specimen in a pure
petroleum distillate free from water, heating and distilling of the water.
•The weight of the water condensed and collected is expressed as percentage by weight of
the original sample.
•The allowable maximum water content should not be more than 0.2% by weight.

23
Loss on heating test

•When the bitumen is heated it loses the volatility and gets hardened.
•About 50gm of the sample is weighed and heated to a temperature of 163C for 5hours in a
specified oven designed for this test.
•The sample specimen is weighed again after the heating period and loss in weight is
expressed as percentage by weight of the original sample.
•Bitumen used in pavement mixes should not indicate more than 1% loss in weight, but for
bitumen having penetration values 150-200 up to 2% loss in weight is allowed.

24
Pavement materials – Subgrade Soil
• Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived naturally
from the disintegration of rocks.
• The supporting soil beneath pavement and its under courses is called
subgrade soil.
Subgrade soil– Desirable properties
i. Stability
ii. Incompressibility
iii.Permanency of strength
iv. Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions
of weather and ground water.
v. Good drainage
vi. Ease of compaction
Tests on Soil
• Shear tests
• Bearing tests
• Penetration tests
Flexible and Rigid pavements

Flexible pavements Rigid pavements


Flexible and Rigid pavements - Comparison

Properties Flexible pavements Rigid pavements

Composition a. Soil sub-grade, Sub-base Soil sub-grade, Sub-base course,


course, Base course, Surface Base course, concrete slab
course

Load transfer By grain to grain action By slab action

Effect of load Elastic deformation which is self No deformation


a. Normal healing.
b. Excessive Plastic deformation causes local Crack occurs
depression.
Effect of temperature No stress No stress
a. Normal
b. Excessive Bleeding of bitumen Warping stress induced
Properties Flexible pavements Rigid pavements

Flexural strength < 5kg/cm² 40-45kg/cm²

Critical composition of stress Maximum compressive stress Maximum flexural stress

Design basis Based on subgrade strength Based on flexural strength of


concrete
Design Empirical/semi empirical method Elastic theory

Life 10-20years 40years


Maintenance cost Rs 30,000-1,00,000/km/annum Less maintenance. Need only at
joints(Rs 5000-10,000/km/annum)

Initial cost Low High


Surface characteristics Permanent non skid surface

Penetration Bituminous surface is not Surface is impervious


impervious
Glare and night visibility Free from glare, need more street Cause glare under sunlight
lighting
Factors affecting design of flexible pavements
1. Design life
Design life or performance period refers to the period of time for which the
initially designed pavement structure will last before any rehabilitation is needed.
2. Reliability
Reliability stands for the probability that any particular distress will remain
below or within the permissible level during the design life.
3. Traffic factors:
i. Wheel loads: Pavement wheel load causes stresses and strains in pavement
layers and subgrade.
ii. Impact: Imperfections in surface and at joints cause additional loads due to
impact.
iii. Repetition of wheel loads: Apart from single wheel load design criterion,
the cumulative load applications during the design life cause plastic
and elastic deformation.
iv. Position of wheel load across pavements: The concentration of wheel load
at a localized width of the pavement can cause extra distress.
Factors affecting design of flexible pavements
4. Climatic factors:
i. Rainfall: Rainfall affects pavement drainage and can thus
be a significant factor
ii. Frost: Frost heave can disrupt pavement structure.
iii. Temperature: Variation of temperature can cause stresses in
the pavements.
5. Road geometry:
i. Horizontal curves: Pavements on horizontal curves are
subjected to extra stresses.
ii. Vertical profile: Pavements on grades are subjected to extra forces due
to acceleration, deceleration and braking.
Factors affecting design of flexible pavements
6. Subgrade strength and drainage:
i. Subgrade strength: Subgrade type and compacted density
soil significantly affect pavement
design
ii. Drainage: Surface and subsurface drainage of pavement and from
adjoining land also affect subgrade strength significantly and hence the
pavement design.
7. Material properties for structural design:
California Bearing Ratio(CBR) test

•The California Bearing Ratio(CBR) test is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of standard
plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions.

•It was developed by the California Division of Highways as a method of classifying and evaluating soil-
subgrade and base course materials for flexible pavements.

•CBR test may be conducted in remoulded or undisturbed sample.

•Test consists of causing a cylindrical plunger of 50mm diameter to penetrate a pavement component material
at 1.25mm/minute.

•The loads for 2.5mm and 5mm are recorded.

•This load is expressed as a percentage of standard load value at a respective deformation level to obtain CBR
value.

34
Apparatus

•Loading machine-any compression machine that can operate at constant rate of 1.25mm
per minute can be used.

•Cylindrical moulds- moulds of 150mm diameter and 175mm height provided with a collar
of about 50mm length and detachable perforated base.

•Compaction rammer, surcharge weight-annular weights each of 2.5kg and 147mm


diameter.

•IS sieve 20mm, Coarse filter paper, balance etc.

35
Procedure

•Sieve the sample through 20mm IS sieve.


•Take 5 kg of the sample of soil specimen.
•Add water to the soil in the quantity such that optimum moisture content or field
moisture content is reached.
•Then soil and water are mixed thoroughly.
•Spacer disc is placed over the base plate at the bottom of mould and a coarse filter paper
is placed over the spacer disc.
•The prepared soil water mix is divided into five.
•The mould is cleaned and oil is applied.
•Then fill one fifth of the mould with the prepared soil.
•That layer is compacted by giving 56 evenly distributed blows using a hammer of weight
4.89kg..

36
Procedure

•The top layer of the compacted soil is scratched.


•Again second layer is filled and process is repeated.
•After 3rd layer, collar is also attached to the mould and process is continued.
•After fifth layer collar is removed and excess soil is struck off.
•Remove base plate and invert the mould
•Then it is clamped to base plate.
•Surcharge weights of 2.5kg is placed on top surface of soil.
•Mould containing specimen is placed in position on the testing machine.
•The penetration plunger is brought in contact with the soil and a load of 4kg(seating load) is
applied so that contact between soil and plunger is established.
•Then dial readings are adjusted to zero.
•Load is applied such that penetration rate is 1.25mm per minute.
•Load at penetration of 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 7.5, 10 and 12.5mm are noted

37
Procedure

•Load penetration curve is plotted


•If the initial portion of the curve is concave upwards, apply correction by drawing a
tangent to the curve at the point of greatest slope and shift the origin. Find and record the
correct load reading corresponding to each penetration.
•C.B.R. = (PT/PS) X 100
where PT = Corrected test load corresponding to the chosen penetration from the
load penetration curve.
PS = Standard load for the same penetration taken from the table above.
•The C.B.R. values are usually calculated for penetration of 2.5 mm and 5 mm.
•Generally the C.B.R. value at 2.5 mm will be greater than at 5 mm and in such a
case/the former shall be taken as C.B.R. for design purpose.
•If C.B.R. for 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test should be repeated.
•If identical results follow, the C.B.R. corresponding to 5 mm penetration should be
taken for design. 38
CBR(California Bearing Ratio) METHOD
• Empirical method
• California division of state highways developed this method in 1928.

• O.J.Porter developed charts corelating traffic and thickness and this was used by California
division.

• Thickness of pavement,

• Where, P = wheel load in kg


• A – area of contact in cm²
• p= tyre pressure, kg/ cm²
• When subgrade CBR less than 12%.
• They evolved curves for CBR, thickness, wheel load.
• Traffic considered as commercial vehicles per day.
CBR design Chart
CBR METHOD – Design Basis
v. In new construction, CBR sample may be soaked in water for 4 days
prior to testing. This can be avoided in arid climates or when
annual rainfall is less than 50cm, or when water table is too deep
to affect the subgrade adversely and when a thick and impermeable
surfacing is provided.
vi. Atleast 3 samples should be tested at same density and moisture
content and if variation of CBR values exceeds the specified
limits, the design CBR should be average of 6 samples.
Variation allowable
<10% - 3%
10-30% - 5%
30-60% - 10%
vii. Top 50cm of subgrade soil should be compacted upto 95-100% of
proctor density.
CBR METHOD – Design Basis
viii.Design traffic is estimated by the equation,
A = P{1 + r}n+10
Where, A – design traffic
P- number of vehicles per day at least count
r- Annual rate of growth of heavy vehicles
n- construction period in years
P is the 7 day average of heavy vehicles
found for 24-hour count.
ix. The traffic for the design is considered in units of heavy vehicles per
day in both directions and divided into 7 categories A to G.
x. When subbase contain aggregates size > 20mm, the CBR value of
these materials would not be valid for the design.
CBR METHOD – Design Basis
• A material with given CBR requires a certain thickness of pavement layer
as cover.
• Recommendations of IRC for conducting CBR method:
i. CBR test should be conducted on soils in the labs. In-situ tests are not
recommended.
ii. Specimen should be prepared by static compaction as far as possible
otherwise by dynamic compaction.
iii. For the design of new roads subgrade samples should be compacted at
OMC to proctor density, whenever suitable compaction
equipment is available, otherwise may be compacted to the dry
density expected to be achieved in the field.
iv. For the existing roads, sample should be compacted to field density of
subgrade soil.
CBR METHOD – Recommended by California State of Highways
Data Required: Total Pavement thickness can be
• CBR value of soil subgrade calculated using the following chart:
• CBR value of sub base course
• CBR value of base course
• Wheel load in kg or kN Wheel load is
classified into three groups based
on traffic conditions.

i. Light traffic(3175 kg)


ii. Medium traffic(4082 kg)
iii. Heavy traffic (5443 kg)
CBR METHOD – Recommended by California State of Highways
• Using CBR value of soil subgrade and
wheel load, find the total thickness
of pavement, T
• Using the CBR value of sub-base course,
find the thickness from top of pavement
to sub-base course. t sb = T - x
• Using the CBR value of base course, find
the thickness from top of pavement to
base course. tb = x - y
• Thickness of surface course can be
calculated by, t s = T-(tb+ tsb )
y ts Surface course
x Base course
T tb

Sub-base course
t sb
CBR METHOD – Recommended by IRC
Data Required: Total Pavement thickness can be
• CBR value of soil subgrade calculated using the following chart:
• CBR value of sub base course
• CBR value of base course
• Traffic intensity(A to G)
CBR METHOD – Recommended by IRC
• Using CBR value of soil subgrade and traffic
intensity, find the total thickness of pavement, T
• Using the CBR value of sub-base course, find
the thickness from top of pavement to sub-base
course. t sb = T - x
• Using the CBR value of base course, find the
thickness from top of pavement to base course.
tb = x - y
• Thickness of surface course can be calculated
by, t s = T-(tb+ tsb )

y ts Surface course
x Base course
T tb

Sub-base course
t sb
CBR METHOD – Recommended by Empirical formulas

Thickness of pavement, Design traffic is estimated by


the equation,
A = P{1 + r}n+10
Where, A – design traffic
P- number of vehicles per day at least
count
r- Annual rate of growth of
Where, p– tyre pressure in kg/cm² heavy vehicles
P – wheel load in kg n- construction period in years
A – area of contact in cm²
CBR – California bearing ratio in %
Problem -1

The CBR value of subgrade soil is 5%, calculate total thickness of a


pavement using
i. Design curve developed by California State Highway Department
ii. Design chart recommended by IRC
iii. Design formula developed by the US corps of Engineers
Assume 4100kg wheel load or medium light traffic of 200 commercial
vehicles per day for design.
Tyre pressure = 6kg/cm²
Answer

i. Design curve developed by California State Highway Department

CBR value of subgrade = 5%


Wheel load = 4100kg = 40.18kN
Hence medium traffic,
T = 380mm = 38cm
Answer

ii. Design chart recommended by IRC

CBR value of subgrade = 5%


Traffic intensity = 200 vehicles per day
Hence category D,
T = 380mm = 38cm
Answer

iii. Design formula developed by the US corps of Engineers


CBR value of subgrade = 5%
Wheel load, P = 4100kg
Tyre pressure, p = 6kg/cm²

= 34.89cm
Problem -2

Soil subgrade sample was obtained from the project site and the CBR tests was
conducted in field density. The following were the results.
It is desired to use the following materials for different pavement layers.
i. Compacted sandy soil with 7% CBR
ii. Poorly graded gravel with 20% CBR
iii. Well graded gravel with 95% CBR
iv. Minimum thickness of bituminous concrete surfacing may be taken as 5cm.
The traffic survey revealed the present average daily traffic(ADT) of commercial vehicle
as 1200. The annual rate of growth of traffic is found to be 8%. The pavement
construction is to be completed in 3 years after the last traffic count.
a) Design the pavement section by CBR method as recommended by IRC, using all the
four pavement materials.
b) Suggest alternative design without using poorly graded gravel.
Discuss the limitation of CBR method of pavement design in the light of the above
results.
Answer
CBR value of subgrade soil
Area of plunger of diameter 5cm
π x 5²
= =19.6cm²

Load, kg
4
Load at 2.5mm penetration
= 55kg
Load at 5mm penetration

120
= 78kg
CBR value of soil at 2.5mm penetration

100
Load carries by specimen
= x 100
Load carries by standard specimen

80
78
5
= 5 x 100
137

60
55
= 4%
0

CBR value of soil at 5mm penetration

40
Load carries by specimen
= x 100
Load carries by standard specimen
7 20
= 8 x 100
205 2 4 6 8 10 14
12
= 3.8%
5 2.5 5
Penetration, cm
Adopt CBR value of subgrade soil as 4%
Design traffic is estimated by the equation,
A = P{1 + r}n+10
P=1200
r = 8% = 0.08
n=3
A = 1200{1 + 0.08}3+10 = 3260 vehicles per
day

Category F
From design chart,
Total pavement thickness, T = 550mm = 55cm

Thickness of Compacted sandy soil with 7% CBR

Thickness from top to this layer = 40cm


Thickness of compacted sandy soil filled layer
= 55-40 = 15cm
Thickness of poorly graded gravel with 20% CBR

Thickness from top to this layer = 20cm


Thickness of poorly graded gravel filled layer
= 40-20 = 20cm

Bituminous surfacing

40 20 Well graded gravel with 95% CBR

55 Poorly graded gravel with 20% CBR


Thickness=40-20=20

Thickness=55-40=15 Compacted soil with 7% CBR


Thickness of well graded gravel with 95% CBR

Thickness from top to this layer = 8cm


But thickness of bituminous layer = 5cm
Thickness of well graded gravel layer
= 20-5 =15 cm

5 Bituminous surfacing

40 Well graded gravel with 95% CBR


20 Thickness=20-5=15
55 Poorly graded gravel with 20% CBR
Thickness=40-20=20

Thickness=55-40=15 Compacted soil with 7% CBR


Alternative method Limitations of CBR method

• CBR method of pavement


gives the total thickness of pavement
design
5 Bituminous surfacing above subgrade and this thickness
value would remain
40
Well graded gravel
irrespective of unchanged the
55
materials used in pavement
quality oflayers.

Thickness=55-40=15 Compacted soil with 7% CBR


Design of flexible pavements by IRC 37: 2018
• Design traffic, • r = annual growth rate of commercial vehicles in

𝟏+𝐫
decimal (eg. For 6 percent annual growth rate,
𝟑𝟔𝟓 𝐧 −𝟏 xAxDx r = 0.06). If ‘r’ value is not given, it is assumed
N= �
� F
as 5%.
• Where, N = cumulative number of standard axles to
be catered for during the design period of ‘n’
years. Unit – msa(million standard axles) The traffic in the year of completion of construction may
be estimated using the equation,
A=P 𝟏
• A = initial traffic (commercial vehicles per day) in
𝐱

+𝐫
the year of completion of construction
• D = Lane distribution factor
• F = vehicle damage factor • Where, P = number of commercial vehicles per day as
• n = design period, in years. If ‘n’ value is not given, per last count.
it is taken as 20 years for NH, SH and urban
roads. For other roads design period of 15 • x = number of years between the last count and the year
years is recommended. of completion of construction.
IRC 37: 2018
• The load from the wheel is transmitted to the pavement
through tyres in the case of pneumatic wheels.
• Heavier vehicles are normally carried on larger number of
axles or wheels, thereby maintaining or even reducing
the individual loads.
• Standard axle load: It is a single axle load with dual wheel
carrying 80 KN load and the design of pavement is based
on the standard axle load.
• The standard design axle load adopted in India is 80kN
(single axle with dual wheels).
IRC 37: 2018
• Vehicle damage factor(VDF):
• It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles
per commercial vehicle.
• The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier to
convert the number of commercial vehicles
of different axle loads and axle configuration
into the of repetitions of standard axle load of
number
magnitude 80kN.
• If information on axle load is not available, VDF can
be assumed.
IRC 37: 2018
• Lane distribution factor(LDF): .
• Lateral distribution- Lateral distribution of commercial traffic on the carriageway is
required for estimating the design traffic (equivalent standard axle load applications) to
be considered for the structural design of pavement.
• The following lateral distribution factors may be considered for roads with different
types of the carriageway:

• Single-lane roads - Traffic tends to be more channelized on single-lane roads than on


two-lane roads and to allow for this concentration of wheel load repetitions, the design
should be based on the total number (sum) of commercial vehicles in both directions.

• Intermediate lane roads of width 5.50 m The design traffic should be based on 75 per
cent of the two-way commercial traffic.
•Two-lane two-way roads -The design should be based on 50 per cent of the total
number of commercial vehicles in both the directions.

•Four-lane single carriageway roads 40 per cent of the total number (sum) of
commercial vehicles in both directions should be considered for design.

•Dual carriageway roads- The design of dual two-lane carriageway roads should be
based on 75 per cent of the number of commercial vehicles in each direction.

•For dual three-lane carriageway and dual four-lane carriageway, the distribution
factors shall be 60 per cent and 45 per cent respectively

63
Design of flexible pavements by IRC 37: 2018
Step 1: Compute the design traffic,

𝟏+𝐫
𝟑𝟔𝟓 𝐧 −𝟏 xAxDx
N= �
� F

Step 2: Interpolate the total pavement thickness from the design


charts.
Step 3: Interpolate the thickness of each pavement layers from
the pavement design catalogues.
IRC 37:2018 – Design charts for pavement thickness
IRC 37:2018 – Pavement design catalogues
IRC 37:2018 – Pavement design catalogues
IRC 37:2018 – Pavement design catalogues
IRC 37:2018 – Pavement design catalogues
IRC 37:2018 – Pavement design catalogues
IRC 37:2018 – Pavement design catalogues
IRC 37:2018 – Pavement design catalogues
IRC 37:2018 – Pavement design catalogues
IRC 37:2018 – Pavement design catalogues
Problem:

• Design a pavement with thick bituminous surfacing for a hilly terrain


for a two lane two way road. Initial traffic on year of completion
was found to be 1200cv/day. CBR of subgrade soil is 6%. Calculate:

i. The cumulative number of standard axles to be catered in the design

ii. The total pavement thickness

iii. The composition of the pavement


Answer:
• Given,
A = 1200
cv/day r = 5% =
0.05
n = 15 years
F = 1.7 from
𝟑𝟔𝟓
table
N= xAxDx
D = 0.5 � F
365 x 𝟏+𝐫

1+0.05
x 1200 x 0.5 x 1.7
𝐧 −𝟏
N= 15 −1
0.05

= 8.03 x 10 6 csa
= 8.03 msa
CBR value of subgrade soil 6%
Total pavement thickness = 580mm = 58cm
Answer:
From bar chart,
Total pavement thickness = 578.48mm≈
580mm

𝐶' = 58cm
C 610
A x

𝐵'
530 B

D
5 8.03 10

x 610−530
=
8.03−5 10−5

x = 48.48
C' D= 530+48.48 = 578.48 ≈
580mm
Answer:
Similarly,
Thickness of subbase
𝐶' C 310
A x

𝐵'
280 B

D
5 8.03 10

x
=
310−280
x = 18.18 Wearing course
8.03−5 10−5
Binder course
C' D= 280+18.18 = 298.18 ≈ 300mm
Base

580
Thickness of subbase= = 300mm = 30cm
300 Sub-Base
Answer:
Similarly,
Thickness of base
𝐶' C 200
A x

𝐵'
150 B

D
5 8.03 10

x
8.03−5= 10−5
200−150
x = 30.3 Wearing course
Binder course
C' D= 150+30.3 = 180.3 ≈180mm
180 Base

580
Thickness of base= = 180mm = 18cm
300 Sub-Base
Answer:
Thickness of binder course = 50mm = 5cm
Thickness of wearing course = 50mm = 5cm

Wearing course, Thickness = 5cm


Binder Course
Thickness = 5cm

thickness=58cm
Total pavement
Base 50 Wearing course

Thickness = 18cm 50 Binder course

Sub base

580
180 Base
Thickness = 30cm
300 Sub-Base
University Q

81
CONSTRUCTION OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
•Components of Flexible Pavements
•Component layers of a flexible pavement laid over the subgrade are:
a) Granular sub-base and drainage layer
b) Granular base course
c) Bituminous binder course
d) Bituminous surface course
•On low-volume roads or village roads the typical components of flexible pavement may
consist of the following layers:
a) Granular sub-base or drainage layer
b) Granular base course
c) Thin bituminous surfacing

82
Construction of Granular Sub-base Course/Drainage Layer
•The sub-base material is spread to uniform thickness and specified cross slope using a
motor grader by adjusting the blade of the grader

•The moisture content of the material is checked and the additional quantity of water
required to bring up to the optimum moisture content is sprinkled at an uniform rate using a
truck mounted sprinkler

•The watered material is mixed properly using machinery such as disc harrows and
rotavators

•The mixed material is spread to the desired thickness, grade and camber using a motor
grader with hydraulic controls of the blade

83
Construction of Granular Sub-base Course/Drainage Layer

•The loose GSB layer is compacted by rolling

•Rolling is done starting from the lower edge and proceeded towards the centre of the
undivided carriageway or towards the upper edge of the divided carriageway,; the rolling
speed is limited to less than 5 kmph.

•Rolling is continued till at least 98 percent of maximum density of the material (for heavy
compaction as per IS: 2720 - Part 8) is achieved

84
Construction of WMM Base
•Compaction test is carried out in the laboratory using the selected grade of WMM material

•The optimum moisture content of the WMM mix is determined in the laboratory under
heavy compaction

•The selected WMM mix (with water equal to the optimum moisture content added) is
prepared in a suitable mixing plant

•The WMM mix is transported to the site and is spread using a paver-finisher machine, to the
required thickness, grade and cross slope

•The WMM layer is compacted using a vibratory roller of minimum static weight of 10
tonnes, the compacted thickness of each layer should be less

85
Construction of WMM Base
•Rolling is done starting from the lower edge and proceeded towards the centre of the
undivided carriageway or towards the upper edge of the divided carriageway; the rolling
speed is limited to less than 5 kmph.

•After compaction of the first layer, the second layer is laid by a mechanical paver- finisher
(preferably by a sensor-paver) and compacted by a vibratory roller as mentioned above

•The WMM surface is checked for defects, if any and allowed to dry; no traffic shall be
allowed before a bituminous surface course is constructed.

•After the WMM layer is dried for at least 24 hours in dry weather, the preparation for laying
a bituminous pavement layer may start by applying the prime coat

86
Construction of BM Base/Binder Course

•The surface on which the BM base course is to be laid (i.e., the receiving surface) is
'prepared' by patching the pot-holes, filling up the depressions and making profile correction,
as required.

•The surface is cleaned with a mechanical broom to remove loose materials and dust

•The prime coat and tack coat are applied as specified if the receiving surface is granular sub-
base or base course; if it is a bituminous surface, a tack coat alone is sufficient

•After ensuring that the prepared surface is dry, the BM mix is prepared in a hot mix plant at
specified temperature, depending on the grade of the bitumen used.

•The hot mix is transported to the construction site in a clean, insulated covered truck.
87
Construction of BM Base/Binder Course
•BM mix is spread using a mechanical paver

•Rolling is started soon after laying the mix and compaction is to be completed before the mix
cools down to the minimum specified temperature

•Compaction of the BM layer and finishing are done

88
Construction of surface course/wearing course

•The receiving surface on which the dense graded bituminous mix is to be laid (such as
existing bituminous surface course or bituminous base/binder course) is prepared by
patching the pot-holes, sealing the cracks and filling up the depressions

•The laying of dense graded bituminous work is to be taken up during dry weather, free
from dampness on the receiving surface and when the atmospheric temperature is higher
than 10°C.

•The receiving surface is cleaned with a mechanical broom to remove loose materials and
dust and tack coat is applied as specified.

•The dense graded bituminous mix is prepared at specified mixing temperature in an


approved hot mix plant; the hot mix is transported to the construction site in insulated
covered vehicles.
89
Construction of surface course/wearing course

•The mix is spread using a hydrostatic paver finisher with sensor at specified paving
temperature

•Rolling is started as soon as laying is done for short stretches

•The compacted density achieved is checked by taking 150 mm diameter core samples;
the density achieved shall preferably be 92 percent of theoretical maximum density of the
mix, so that the initial voids in the mix is about 7 to 8% and due to traffic induced
secondary compaction during the design life, the final voids in the mix is not lower than
4%.

•Finished surface shall not be opened to traffic until entire depth of bituminous later
cools down to temp below 60 deg C

•Finished surface is checked for unevenness and undulations


90
•Interface treatment – The surface of the existing pavement layer is to be cleaned to
remove dust and dirt and a thin layer of bituminous binder is to be sprayed before the
construction of any type of bituminous layer over this surface. This treatment with
bituminous material is called interface treatment.

• Prime Coat
It is the first application of low viscosity liquid bituminous material over
an existing porous pavement like WBM base course. Main objective is
to fill the capillary voids and to bond the loose materials.

• Tack Coat
Bituminous tack coat is the application of bituminous binder over an
existing pavement surface or a cement concrete or pervious pavement
already treated by primecoat.

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