WHEAT PRODUCTION

RICHARD KIRIGIAH
INTRODUCTION

• Scientific Name: Triticum aestivum

• Order / Family: Cyperales: Poaceae
• Local Names: Ngano (Swahili)
• Introduced in Kenya in early 1900s
• Second most important cereal after rice. In Kenya, it is the second most important cereal grain crop after
maize and is grown in areas like Narok, Kitale, Nakuru, Trans-Nzoia, Uasin Gishu, some parts of Laikipia,
among others.
• Is rich in glutein protein or amino acid which helps in dough raising.
Genetics
• Some types are diploid (2n = 14) like Triticum monococcum, tetraploids (4n = 28) like Triticum durum and
hexaploids (6n = 42) which is was developed by hybridizing domesticated durum (4n) and wild haploid grass.
• Genes that controls dwarfing trait were introduced by Japanese wheat breeders to produce short-stalked
wheat which prevents lodging resulting in improved yields.
•
ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS

 Altitude – wheat growing areas have an altitude range of 1500-2900m asl.

 Rainfall – wheat does well in moderate rainfall ranging from 500-1300mm.
 Temperature– Wheat is essentially a temperate-climate crop. Optimum temperatures for development
are 10 to 24oC.
Relatively low temperatures result in the highest yields. the crop requires a relatively warm temperature
range of 15-25 degrees centigrade for at least three months. Temperatures above 35 oC stop
photosynthesis and the growth of the crop. At a higher temperature, e.g. 40 degrees centigrade, the crop
dies due to the heat.
Wheat does not do well under warm conditions with high relative humidity, unless irradiation and nutrient
availability are very favourable. In addition, wheat diseases are generally encouraged by such climatic
conditions.
 Soil – for optimum production, wheat requires a deep fertile soil which is well aerated, well drained,
o.5% organic matter and with an optimum soil PH of between 5.5-7.5. Wheat crop is very sensitive to
soil salinity.
KENYAN WHEAT VARIETIES

Bread wheat cultivars in Kenya are categorised into 4 classes depending on the baking characteristics:
 Group I: Weak wheat not ideal for baking. Can be used for fodder or blended with superior wheat for
baking. These include Kenya Bongo. Kenya Kudu, Kenya Kongoni, Kenya Tumbili Kenya Tausi, Kenya
Chirika and Ngamia.
 Group II: Strong stable wheat. Fairly good baking qualities. These include Kenya Mamba, Nyangumi,
African Mayo, Kenya Tembo, Nyumba, Kenya Popo, Kenya Ngiri, Kenya Nungu, Kifaro, Mbweha, Kwale
and Duma.
 Group III: Strong dispensable wheat. Good baking quality. Also used for pasta. Varieties include: Kenya
Zabadi, Kiboko, Swara, Paka, Fahari, Kuro, Nyati and Mbega.
 Group IV: White wheat used for confectionary and pasta. Good for home baking. Include following
varieties: Kenya Kulungu, Nyoka, Leopard as well as Bounty, Mbuni, Pasa.
Seed selection

Certified seed are recommended for the following reasons:

 It does not contain weed seeds such as wild oats, Setaria spp., Rye, Browe, Beckeropsis and grasses.
 It has sound kernels - neither broken nor cracked and has good germination.
 Are of one variety to ensure even ripening. Farmers will be penalised if they deliver wheat that has 2 or more
varieties mixed or immature kernels mixed with mature seed.
 Note: If certified seeds are dressed with insecticides to prevent damage from soil-borne insect pests, they are
not suitable for organic farming.
Home selection of seed
• For organic farmers, home selection of seeds is possible.
• Selection in the field to control noxious weeds. Weeds such as wild oats and other troublesome weeds are
removed by hand when observed.
• Diseases and pests are controlled as far as possible in the farm level.
• Dry the seed well to ensure no storage diseases or pests get a chance to multiply.
• Good healthy.
• Do not mix varieties.
Propagation and planting

Propagation method:
 seed.
• Land preparation
• Clearing- cutting down of trees, slashing of bushes and spraying with herbicides that kills both annual and
perennial weeds.
• Ploughing- deeply at least 15 cm depth done by tractor drawn implements. This breaks the hardpan and
improves both soil water percolation as well as soil water storage capacity.
• Harrowing – done repeatedly to attain a fine tilth.
• Planting - Choose a suitable variety for the area and plant with the first rains
• Sowing depth: from 2-5 cm, with deeper planting required in dry conditions to reach the soil moisture.
However, care must be taken not to sow too deep as the seed will then die.
Planting methods:
 Mechanised
 Broadcasting
 Line planting
Wheat planters
Seed rate

Seeding rate is commonly 75-150 kg/ha, resulting in 250-300 plants/m 2, but the rate depends on the:
 tillering ability of the cultivar,
 soil fertility
 mode of sowing.
• The recommended seeding rates when using precision planters for some varieties are:
 high tillering ability - 75 kg/ha: Kenya Nyangumi, Kenya Bongo, Kenya Tembo
 medium tillering - 100kg/ha: Kenya Leopard, Bounty, Kenya Paka, Kenya Nungu, Kenya Kongoni, Zabadi,Kenya Popo,
Kenya Nyumba, Kenya Kulungu, Kenya Tumbili, Kenya Kima. Kenya Chirika, Mbuni, Kwale, Tausi, Ngamia, Duma
 low tillering -125 kg/ha: Kenya Fahari, Kenya Ngiri
• If hand sowing is decided on, it is advisable to increase seeding rates to be sure of a good stand especially when
broadcasting the seed. The following practices can be used for hand seeding:
 Broadcasting. Broadcast 1.5 bags per acre of the chosen variety as evenly as possible. Cover seed with animal drawn
surface harrow or some fairly solid branches tied together and dragged over the seeds. It is difficult to weed such a field
by hand.
 Planting rows shallow planting furrows with enough distance between for a jembe (hoe) to pass through the spacing.
• Germination – takes 4-7 days
Field management
Weed control
• Yield losses due to weeds are caused by early competition in the first 4-5 weeks. The more common weeds are: Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), star grass
(Cynodon dactylon), purple nut sedge (Cyperus rotundus), couch grass (Digitaria abyssinica), goose grass (Eleusine indica), purslane (Portulaca oleracea)
and horse purslane (Trianthema portulacastrum).
• Weeds should be controlled in the first 5 weeks.
• Common methods of weed control
• Proper land preparation
• Planting of certified seeds
• hand weeding
• proper crop rotation.
• Chemical control. Common herbicides include:
 2,4-D – kills by causing excessive hormonal growth- it is a selective herbicide which kills broadleaved weeds only. It should be applied before piping stage,
when crop has developed 5-6 leaves.
 Tribenuron-methyl - is a selective herbicide with a systemic mode of action and fit for the control of broadleaved weeds when crop is in the 3-5 leaf stage.
 Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (Aryloxyphenoxy-propionate group of herbicides)- kills by inhibiting the biosynthesis of fatty acids (inhibition of Acetyl CoA
carboxylase) leading to weed death. It is a selective herbicide with both contact and systemic actions and is used to control annual and perennial grass
weeds.
• Crop rotation- Wheat is best rotated with non-graminaceous crops, particularly with pulses, potatoes or any other crop which is possible to keep free of
weeds. Weeds effectively compete with wheat for nutrients, water and light and are the biggest constraint to good yields.
• Early seed bed preparation - allowing weeds to germinate with the first rains, followed by a very shallow harrowing will greatly reduce the amount of weeds
in the wheat crop.
Irrigation and Copper deficiency

Irrigation
Irrigation increases wheat production in case of drought. It can be practised in basins, by furrow, or using overhead sprinklers.
Care must be taken not to over-irrigate as wheat, which unlike rice, is very sensitive to early water logging.
Critical water demanding periods is
 right after planting
 tillering stage
 flowering stage
Copper deficiency
• Some areas in Kenya have been found to have soil deficient in copper. This results in poor growth and tip burn of all grasses
and grains including wheat. Copper deficient areas include:
 Nakuru district: Njoro, Rongai, Menengai, Lanet, areas bordering Elburgon and Mau Narok as well as Gilgil and Naivasha
areas.
 The whole of Narok district.
• Control of copper deficiency:
 The seed must be dressed with copper oxychloride (1 kg/100 kg of seed).
 Foliar spray of 1 kg/ha of Copper Oxychloride should be applied at early tillering stage.
Fertilizer application

• Fertilisation necessary for wheat depends on previous land use.

• As soils usually are deficient in particularly in phosphorous, an application of Mijingu rock phosphate
or similar of about 150 – 200 P2O5 kg/ha is usually needed.
• For nitrogen supply, organic farmers can try the TwinN available from Lachlan Ltd, in Kenya. They
report good results in wheat with this product which consist of free living nitrogen fixing bacteria.
This product should not be mixed with copper sprays as copper will kill the bacteria.
Harvesting

Maturity index
 Age: Wheat matures in 4-7 months depending on variety and altitude. At higher altitudes (low temperatures) it takes longer.
 Drying of the plants
 Seeds having a moisture content of below 15%
Harvesting methods
• Small scale farming:
 Cutting the wheat using hand sickles.
 The wheat is then tied into bundles and stacked to be threshed when completely dry.
 Threshing, done by beating with flails, trampling by humans or animals, or by driving a small tractor over the straw. A wheat sheaf
may also be beaten by hand against a low wall, an oil drum, or a wagon bed, so that the grains fall into a container or onto a mat.
Grain losses can be considerable with these procedures. Pedal or motor-driven paddy rice threshers are also used.
 Winnowing
 Bagging
• Large scale farming
 Use combine harvesters and can sometimes be persuaded to harvest smaller plots for a fee.
 The grain should be dried to a maximum moisture content of 13% before storing. Tooth test: Bite a grain. If it is possible to crush the
grain with the teeth it is not dry enough. If the grain cracks under pressure it is probably dry.
Pests: stalk borers, thrips, nematodes, Russian aphids, cut worms
The Russian Wheat Aphid (Diuraphis noxia)
• Most damaging pests of small grain cereals (e.g. wheat, barley, triticale, rye, and oats) in the world. It was first
identified in farmers' fields in 1995.
• They are hardy and can survive extremely low temperatures. Dry weather favours rapid increase of the aphid.
• Russian wheat aphid is not a known transmitter of diseases,
Signs
• Aphid colour - pale to light green in colour with an elongated, spindle shaped body and grows to up to 2 mm long. It
has short antennae with rounded very short, nearly invisible cornicles.
• lives in the leaf whorls or in tightly rolled leaves, and thus are partially protected from natural enemies and from
contact insecticides.
• Causes damage by injecting a toxin into the plants during feeding.
• This toxin prevents the production of chlorophyll leading to:
 leaf chlorosis,
 longitudinal leaf rolling
 white/yellow (warm weather) or purple reddish (cold weather) streaking on the leaves.
 Extensive chlorosis leads to death of plants while leaf rolling retards plant development causing stunted growth.
Russian aphid cont’n
 The tight rolling of flag leaves delays ear emergence, leading to floret sterile heads resulting in reduction of seed set.
 low kernel weight,
 increased rate of seed deterioration under accelerated ageing conditions,
 reduced seedling vigour.
 The effect of infestation on seed quality is more pronounced under dry conditions.
 Infestation also may result in reduced seedling vigour.
 Damage usually appears when crops have attained the tillering stage.
 Yield losses ranging from 25 to 90% have reported.

CONTROL
• Scout your crop regularly.
• Check for damage signs (first noticeable sign is slight to moderate yellowing of small areas of crop within the field; in addition the crop may appear to be
under drought stress, even if there is no drought.).
• Use the correct seed rate to ensure good plant density, as low plant densities are susceptible to heavy attack by the aphid.
• Early planting.

• Irrigation in case of drought

• Remove volunteer plants and grasses because they act as the aphid's hosts even before the main crop has been planted.

•
Stalk borer, birds
Stalk borers
• the larvae feed on leaves.
• Holes on the stalk
• Broken stems.
• Spray KINGCITEODE EL 50EC 10ml/20l or PROFILE 440EC 30ml/20l or PRESENTO 200SP 5g/20l
Birds
• they eat grains off the mature ear
control:
 Planting resistant varieties
 Use of bird scarer
 apply a bad repellent to the seeds.
 change the planting date.
Thrips
 These are piercing and sucking insects found mostly behind the sheath of the flag leaf feeding.
 They attack leaves, stems and heads causing significant damages.
 Black mass formed on the leaves
• Control;
 Irrigation/mulching
 Spray Abamectin 50EC 5ml/20l or PROFILE 440EC 30ml/20l or DEFENDER 25EC 40ml/20l
Nematodes, Cutworms

Nematodes
 Infestation leads to formation of galls/swellings on the roots.
 This reduces plant vigour resulting into stunted growth.
Control:
 Drench soil with ALONZE 50EC 10ml/20l or mix 2-3 kg ADVENTURE 5GR with 50kg of basal fertilizer
whenever applying fertilizers.
Cutworms
 they cut the stem of younger plants below the soil surface.
 The infested plants withers eventually.
 Seedlings lying on the soil
 Caterpillars in the soil around the plant root region
Control:
 Drench soil with PROFILE 440EC 60ml/20l or PENTAGON 50EC 20ml/20l
Diseases: Wheat bunt, Stem rust, Powderly mildew, Take-all disease, Barley yellow dwarf virus, Wheat yellow rust, Brown leaf rust

Wheat bunt
Causal agent: fungus Tilletia tritici
Symptoms
 Infected plants have reduced height.
 The smutted wheat heads are bluish green when they emerge from the boot.
 The healthy heads are yellowish green.
 The disease also induces excessive tillering.
 Bunt infected flowers have green ovaries while healthy ones are white.
 The grain of wheat is replaced by a black mass of spores (spore ball) accompanied by a smell like of rotting
fish.
Control:
 Use certified diseased-free seeds.
 Plant resistant varieties, if available
Stem rust

Causal agent: fungus Puccinia graminis f. sp. Tritici

Symptoms
• pustules (a pimple-like or blister-like structure) that develop and break through the surface of the stems, leaves,
sheaths, chaff and beards of the wheat plant.
• The kernels are badly shrivelled, many of them being so light and chaffy that are blown out with chaff in threshing.
• The remaining grains may be shrunken to one-half or two-thirds normal size.
• Myriads of brick-red spores escape from the pustules and are carried by the wind to other wheat plants.
Control
• Plant resistant varieties, if available.
• Plant early.
• Control wild grasses.
• Avoid cropping of wheat in succession.
• Spraying with fungicides
•
Brown leaf rust

Causal agent: fungus Puccinia recondita

Symptoms
 Small and circular brown lesions.
 The lesions turn black as the crop matures.
 The lesions occur on the leaf blades and the leaf
sheaths and may appear at any stage of the crop's growth.
Control
 Plant resistant varieties, if available.

 Control weeds.

 Avoid cropping of wheat in succession.

 Use of fungicides
Wheat yellow rust

• Causal agent: fungus Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici can survive as dormant mycelium on wheat
• Pf: low temperatures and wetness (low night temperatures below 15ºC)
Symptoms
 The first sign of stripe rust is the appearance of yellow streaks (pre-pustules), followed by small, bright yellow,
elongated uredial pustules arranged in conspicuous rows on the leaves, leaf sheaths, glumes and awns.
 Mature pustules will break open and release yellow-orange masses of urediniospores.
 In some varieties, long, narrow yellow stripes will develop on leaves.
 The infected tissues may become brown and dry as the plant matures or becomes stressed.
 Severe early infection can result in plant stunting.

Control
 Plant resistant varieties, if available.

 Control weeds.

 Avoid cropping of wheat in succession.

• Use of fungicides
Powderly mildew

• Causal agent: Fungus Ersiphe graminis

• Pf: cool and wet weather
Signs
 White powdery growth appears on all above ground parts of plants.
 The white growth consists of fungal mycelium and spores.
 The growth later turns buff in colour. The disease is wind-borne.
Control:
 Plant resistant varieties, if available.
 Remove crop debris after harvest.
 Use of fungicides
Take-all disease

• Causal agent: soil-borne fungus Gaeumannomyces graminis. (The pathogen survives between crops
on cereal roots and stubble. It also attacks barley, oats and rye).
Signs
 black roots, frequently killing them in the process.
 Affected stems are black and shiny just above the soil level. This symptom can only been seen by
peeling away the leaf sheaths.
 The disease occurs in slowly widening patches, and in these areas plants with poorly filled or empty
ears (whiteheads) may be present.
Control
 Rotate with non-susceptible crops such as alfalfa, sweet clover or maize.

 Remove stubble from the fields.

 Avoid continuous cropping with wheat, barley, oats or rye