Madda Walabu University

College of Social Science and Humanities

Department of Geography and Environmental Studies

Geography of Transport and Development

GeES 3024
Crhr. 3
Programme: Weekend
 Learning Objectives
At the end of this course, the students will be able to:
Acquire basic understanding on transport system and
networks,
Identify the different transportation modes and terminals,
Explain international and regional transportation for the
development of a country,
Identify the characteristics and problems of urban
transportation,
Describe the economic and spatial structure of transport
systems,
Explain the different theories of transportation.
 Contents
1. Introduction
1.1. Definition and concepts of transport geography
1.2. Transportation and geography
1.3. Transportation and space
1.4. Historical geography of transport
1.5. The notion of accessibility
1.6. Route selection
1.7. Geographic Information Systems for Transportation
2. Transport Systems and Networks
2.1. Transportation and commercial geography
2.2. The geography of transport networks
2.3. Transport supply and demand
2.4. Graph theory
2.5. Network analysis of passengers
3. Transportation modes
3.1. Modes
3.1.1. Road transportation
3.1.2. Rail transportation
3.1.3. Maritime transport
3.1.4. Air transportation
3.2. Intermodal transportation
3.3. Transport economic indicators
3.4. Specialization index
3.5. Location coefficient
3.6. The containerization of commodities
3.7. Transcontinental bridges
4. Transport Terminals
4.1. The function of transport terminals
4.2. Terminals and location
4.3. Port terminals
4.4. Rail terminals
4.5. Airport terminals
5. International and Regional Transportation
5.1. Transportation, globalization and international trade
5.2. Commodity chain and freight transportation
5.3. Logistics and freight transportation
5.4.Spatial interaction
5.5. The gravity model
5.6. International oil transportation
5.7. International tourism and transport
6. Urban Transportation
6.1. Transportation and urban form
6.2. Urban land use and transportation
6.3. Urban mobility
6.4. Urban transport problems
6.5. Transportation/land use modelling
6.6. The Lowry model
6.7. Telecommuting and office space
7. Economic and Spatial Structure of Transport Systems
7.1. Transport and economic development
7.2. Transport and spatial organization
7.3. Transport and location
7.4. Market area analysis
7.5. Risk assessment
8. Transport and Environment
8.1. Transportation and energy
8.2. Transport and Spatial Organization
8.3. Transportation, land use and environment
8.4. Air pollutions emitted by transport systems
8.5. Water pollutants emitted by transport system
8.6. Green logistics
9. Transport Planning and Polices
9.1. The policy process
9.2. Transport planning
9.3. Transport Management
9.4. Traffic counts and traffic surveys
 1. Introduction
1.1.Definition and Concepts of Transport Geography
Transportation: is defined as the spatial mobility of people
(passengers) and goods (Freight).
It involves:
• change in the locations of people
• commodities from production area to consumption
area.
 Transport is a multidimensional activity: has various
economic, social and political roles
It creates valuable link to resources, activities, enabling the
exchange of goods (trade) and ideas (information)
 its function as a major factor in industrial location (as
mentioned by Weber); and in determining agricultural land
use (as mentioned by Von Thunen)
 its role to reduce space in terms of time required to move,
which has been declining following the improvements in
transport mode efficiencies
 1.2 Transport and Geography
 Transport geography can be considered as a study of
transport systems and their spatial impacts
 Transport geography is a sub-discipline of economic
geography concerned with the movements of freight, people
and information.
 Movements of passengers and freight as well as information
flows along with its spatial dimensions are central to
transport geography.
 Transport geography is a sub-discipline of
economic geography concerned with the movements
of freight, people and information.
 It seeks to link spatial constraints and
attributes with the origin, the destination, the
extent, the nature and the purpose of
movements.
 Why is Transportation Interested in Geography?

Transportation interests geographers for two main reasons:

1. Transport infrastructures, terminals and networks occupy an
important place in space.
2. Since geography seeks to explain spatial relationships,
transport network are of specific interest
 because it is the main support of these interactions.
 Transportation is a system that considers the complex r/n
ships b/n its core elements, such as networks, nodes and
demand.
 Since the 1990s, transport geography has
received renewed attention, especially because
the issues of:
• mobility,
• production and
• distribution are interrelated in a complex
geographical setting.
 It is now recognized that transportation is a
system that considers the complex
relationships between its core elements.
 These core elements are networks, nodes and
demand.
1. Transportation Nodes:- Transportation primarily links
locations, often characterized as nodes.
Nodes are locations where movements are originating, ending
and being transferred.
2. Transportation Demand:- Considers the demand for
transport services as well as the modes used to
support movements.
 Demand for the movement of people, freight & information is
a function of socio-economic activities.
3. Transportation Network:- Considers the spatial structure of
transport infrastructures and terminals.
It is composed of a set of linkages produced by transport
infrastructure.
The three core elements r/n ships and the impedance (friction)
they are subject to are:
1. Locations. The level of spatial accumulation of socio-
economic activities jointly defines demand and where this
demand is taking place.
 Impedance is a function of the accessibility of nodes to the
demand they service.
2. Flows. The amount of traffic over the network, which is a
function of the demand and the capacity of the linkages to
support them.
 Flows are mainly subject to the friction of space with
distance being the most significant impedance factor.
3. Terminals. The facilities enabling access to the network as
terminals are characterized by their nodality and the linkages
that are radiated from them.
 The capacity of transport terminals to handle flows is the
main impedance factor.
Geographical Considerations Relevant to Transport
Geography
The three basic geographical considerations relevant to transport
geography are:
1. Location:-
 all activities have their own location.
 each location has its potential supply and demand for
resources, products, services or labor.
 a location can determine the nature, distance and the
possibility of a movement.
2. Complementarity:-
 Some locations have a surplus while others have a deficit.
 an equilibrium can reached by exchange b/n locations having
surpluses/ supply and demands/deficit.
3. Scale:-
 Movements generated by complementarity are occurring at
different scales such as over local, regional and global
geographies.
 Dimensions of Transport Geography
 Dimension refers to the scope which it covers.
1. Economics:-the economic dimension is concerned with cost. i.e,
cost of movements, construction and maintenance of transport
modes and infrastructures.
 The performance of any transport systems are measured by
economic criteria.
2. Engineering:- is concerned by the construction and maintenance
of transportation infrastructures.
 Transport supply is linked to engineering considerations.
3. Environment/Ecology:- this is concerned with the impacts of
transportation on ecological systems such as the atmosphere, the
hydrosphere and the ecosphere.
 and impacts of natural conditions, such as topography and
climate on the operation of transport systems.
4. Technology:- concerned with technological change on
transportation systems.
5. History: - The historical dimension covers the evolution of
transport networks in time and space.
and specific conditions that have influenced the establishment of
transport networks and
the technological, economic and social environments that have
produced transport systems.
5. Mathematics and Computer Science: - Provide a set of tools
and methods to manage information and analyze transport related
information.
E.g. Spatial interaction models- derived from mathematical
methods.
6. Planning and Policy:- The political dimension concerned
with planning and controlling the transportation system,
allocation of transportation resources.
7. Sociology and Demography: - The social dimension covers
problems such as accidents, the behavior of drivers and other
social aspects.
Demographic attributes and changes are also linked with the
evolution of transport system, the modes used and the level of
services.
 1.3 Transportation and Space
 Transport geography is concerned with movements that take
place over space.
 The physical features of this space impose major constraints
on transportation systems in terms of:
• What mode can be used,
• the extent of the service,
• Its costs, capacity and reliability
Topography
Hydrology
Climate
Three basic spatial constraints are:
A. Topography
 Features such as mountains and valleys could strongly affect
the structure of networks, the cost and feasibility of
transportation projects.
• Land transportation- Rugged topography and steep slopes
can increases distance, cost of transportation and
construction
• Water transport- Influenced by the location of obstacles
such as reefs.
• Air transport influenced by Coastlines.
 It exerts an influence on the location of port infrastructure. B/c
Aircraft requires airfields of considerable size for takeoff and
landing.
B. Hydrology
 Maritime transport is influenced greatly by the availability of
navigable channels through rivers, lakes and shallow seas.
 Port sites (place at which traffics are trans-shipped) are also
highly influenced by the physical attributes of the site where
natural features such as bays and sand dunes protect port
installations
 Water bodies serve as barriers to land transportation
necessitating the construction of bridges, tunnels etc.
C. Climate
 Climate through its components, such as temperature, wind
and precipitation affects transportation considerably (impacts
on transportation modes and infrastructure).
 Freight and passenger movement can seriously be curtailed by
hazardous conditions such as snow, heavy rainfall, ice or fog,
Jet streams.
 Climate is also influence transportation networks by affecting
construction and maintenance costs.
 Volcanic eruptions can have an impact by releasing large
amount of ashes in to the atmosphere (ash could damage
engines)- forced closing movements
E.g. In 2010 in Iceland = forced the closing of most airports in
NW Europe
Space/Time Relationships Reflected in Transportation
 It describes how much space/distance can be
overcome within a given amount of time.
 Space/Time convergence – a process that
investigates the changing r/n ships b/n space and time
• It is the concept related to speed – how much space
can be traveled over specific amount of time.
• Improvements in transport systems, changes the
relationship between time and space.
• When this r/n ship b/n places becomes easier,
cheaper and faster, result in what is known as a
space/Time convergence, because the amount
of space that can be overcome for a similar
amount of time increases significantly.
Measuring STC
Having travel time information b/n two locations and time periods; STC is given
as:
∆TT
STC = ∆T
Where, STC = Space/Time convergence
∆TT – is difference in travel time
∆T – is difference in Time periods over which the movement took place

• If the value of STC = -ve = Space Time Convergence

• If the value of STC = +Ve = Space Time Divergence
 E.g. At present time (2015) Mini Bus is reaching Robe at 15minuts from
Goba. However it took 40minites before 15 years ago. Calculate the STC
and interpret the result
Factors in space/time convergence:
1. Speed:-The more the speed for a given transport modes, the
lesser time it requires to cover a given distance.
2. Economies of scale:- Being able to transport larger amounts of
freight and passengers at lower costs has improved the capacity
and efficiency of transport systems.
 For space/time convergence, this implies that there is more
capacity for a given quantity of passengers or freight to be
carried.
3. Expansion of Transport Infrastructures:-Transport
infrastructures have expanded to service areas that were not
previously serviced or were insufficiently serviced.
 Enable distribution systems to expand and minimize access
problems
4
4. Improvement in Transport Terminals:-
Resulted in high efficiency of Transport Terminals, such as
ports and airports
Then high capacity to handle large quantities in a timely
manner.
5. Substitution of transportation by
telecommunications:-
Enabled several economic activities to bypass
spatial constraints in a very significant manner.
Electronic mail is an example where the
transmission of information does not have a physical
form (outside electrons) once the supporting
infrastructure is established.
 1.4.Historical Geography of Transport
 The modern transport system is not a result of overnight
product.
 Rather it has taken considerable series of historical revolutions
and evolutions.
 This process is very complex and is related to the spatial
evolution of economic systems.
 It is possible to summarize this evolution, from the pre-
industrial era to transportation in the early 21st century, in
four major stages, each linked with specific technological
innovations in the transport sector;
• the pre-industrial era,
• the industrial revolution,
• fordism and
• post-fordism (globalization)
A. Transportation in the Pre-Industrial Era (pre-1800s)
It should be noted that before the major technical
transformations brought forward by the industrial revolution at
the end of the 18th century, no forms of motorized transportation
existed.
Transport technology was mainly limited to harnessing animal
labor for land transport and to wind for maritime transport.
The transported quantities were very limited and was the
speed at which people and freight were moving.
The average overland speed by horse, which was domesticated
around 2,000 BC, was between 8 to 15 kilometers per hour and
maritime speeds are much more less than this.
International trade did exist, but traded commodities were high-
value (luxury) goods such as spices, silk, wine and perfume,
notably along the Silk Road.
B. The Industrial Revolution and Transportation (1800-1870)
It was during the industrial revolution that massive
modifications of transport systems occurred in two major
phases:
The first centered along the development of canal systems,
The second centered along railways.
This period marked the development of the steam engine that
converted thermal energy into mechanical energy, providing an
important territorial expansion for maritime and railway
transport systems.
The first efficient steam engine was developed in 1765. Much
of the credit of developing this efficient engine is attributed to the
British Engineer Watt (water pump).
 The first mechanically propelled maritime vehicle was tested
in 1790 by the American Inventor Fitch as a mode of fluvial
transportation on the Delaware River.
 By 1807, commercial steam boat services were inaugurated.
This marked a new era in the mechanization of land and
maritime transport systems alike.
 The main consequence of the industrial revolution was a
specialization of transportation services and the establishment
of large distribution networks of raw materials and energy.
C. Emergence of Modern Transportation Systems (1870-1920)
By the end of the 19th century, international transportation
undertook a new growth phase, especially with improvements in
engine propulsion technology and a gradual shift from coal to
oil in the 1870s.
Although oil has been known for centuries for its combustion
properties, its commercial use was only applied in the early 19th
century.
Inventors started experimenting with engines that could use the
cheap new fuel.
Oil increased the speed and the capacity of maritime transport.
This period also marked the golden era of the development of
the railway transport system as railway networks expanded
tremendously and became the dominant land transport mode
both for passengers and freight.
 Electric energy became widely used in the 1880s and
considerably changed urban transport systems with the
introduction of tramways (streetcars), notably in Western
Europe and in the United States.
 This era also marked the first significant developments in
telecommunications.
 The telegraph is considered to be the first efficient
telecommunication device.
D. Transportation in the Fordist Era (1920-1970)
The Fordist era was epitomized by the adoption of the assembly
line as the dominant form of industrial production, an
innovation that benefited transportation substantially.
The internal combustion engine, or four-stroke engine by
Daimler (1889), which was a modified version of the Diesel
engine (1885), and the pneumatic tire (1885) by Dunlop made
road vehicles operations faster and more comfortable.
Compared with steam engines, internal combustion engines
have a much higher efficiency and are using a lighter fuel, petrol.
Mass producing these vehicles changed considerably the
industrial production system, notably by 1913 when Ford began
the production of the Model T car using an assembly line.
 The application of the gas turbine principle led to the
development of jet engines.
 1952 marks the beginning of commercial jet services with the
Comet.
 In 1958, the first successful commercial jet plane, the Boeing
707, entered in service and revolutionized international
movements of passengers, marking the end of passenger
transoceanic ships and replacing propeller planes for long
distance services.
 The jet plane enabled the setting of time dependent trade
relations between producers across the world (such as
electronics), created a long distance market for perishables
(fruits and vegetables) and supported the development of mass
tourism.
E. A New Context for Transportation : the Post-Fordist Era
(Since 1970)
Among the major changes in international transportation from
the 1970s are the massive development of telecommunications,
the globalization of trade, more efficient distribution systems,
and the considerable development of air transportation.
Telecommunications enabled growing information exchanges,
especially for the financial and service sectors.
After 1970 telecommunications successfully merged with
information technologies.
As such, telecommunication also became a medium of doing
business in its own right, in addition to supporting and enhancing
other transportation modes.
 1.5. The Notion of Accessibility
 Accessibility is defined as the measure of the capacity of a
location to be reached by, or to reach different locations.
 It is a direct expression of mobility either in
terms of people, freight or information.
 Well-developed and efficient transportation
systems offer high levels of accessibility, while
less-developed ones have lower levels of
accessibility.
 The notion of accessibility relies on two core concepts:
1. Location where the relativity of space is estimated in relation to
transport infrastructures; to be served by.
2. Distance, which is derived from the connectivity b/n locations.
 Connectivity can only exist when there is a possibility to link
two locations through transportation.
 Measuring Accessibility
 One of the most basic measures of accessibility
involves network connectivity where a network
is represented as a connectivity matrix (C),
which expresses the connectivity of each node
with its adjacent nodes.
 Connectivity, in network analysis refers to the degree to which
the nodes of a net works are directly connected to each other.
 The number of columns and rows in this matrix is equal to the
number of nodes in the network Value 1 is given for each cell where
this is a connected pair and 0 for cells of unconnected pair.
 If all connections in the network are bi-directional, the connectivity
matrix is transposable.
 The connectivity matrix does not take into account all the possible
indirect paths between nodes.
 Summation of the matrix (adding up a row or a column) gives a
measure of accessibility, also known as the degree of a node:
C1 = degree of a node.
cij = connectivity b/n node i & node j (either1 or 0).
n= number of nodes
Constructing CL
E.g. see the network on Figure below
Since the network on Figure has 5 nodes, its connectivity matrix is a 5 × 5
grid.

Node C is the most connected since it has the highest summation of

connectivity compared to all other nodes.
 Figure: Geographic accessibility
A B C D E ∑ /n

A 0 8 4 9 15 7.2
B 8 0 7 12 18 9.0
C 4 7 0 5 11 5.4
D 9 12 5 0 6 6.4
E 15 18 11 6 0 10.0
∑ /n 7.2 9.0 5.4 6.4 10.0 38.0
Accessibility Problems
 The question is that what creates a problem to accessibility and
its route section/ influences rout selection process?
 The major problems are physical attributes of space &
transport costs.
 The Detour Index (direct distance divided by the transport
distance) illustrates the importance of physical constraints on
route selection.
1.6 Route Selection
Transportation, as an economic activity and
facilitator, aims at cost minimization, by trying to
minimize the friction of distance b/n locations.
Long distance with shorter times and lower costs
principle
Route selection has two major dimensions:
• Construction: - Involves activities related to the establishment
of transport networks such as road and rail construction.
•Operation:- is concerned with the management of flows in a
network.
Route selection thus tries to find or use a path
minimizing costs and maximizing efficiency.
Therefore, route selection can be evaluated based on:
A. Cost Minimization:- a good route selection should minimize
the overall costs of the transport system
- Both the construction as well as operating costs
B. Efficiency Maximization: -a route must support economic
activities by providing a level of accessibility, thus fulfilling the
needs of regional development.
 Even if a route is longer and more expensive to build & operate,
it might provide better services for an area.
i.e. high efficiency at the expense of higher costs.
1.7.Geographic Information Systems for Transportation
GIS-T
GIS-T: Geographic Information Systems for Transportation (GIS-T)
refers to the principles and applications of applying geographic
information technologies to transportation problems.
GIS-T research investigates the questions of how GIS can be used to
facilitate and improve transportation studies.
In general, topics related to GIS-T studies can be grouped into three
categories:
i. Data representations:- It is about how various components of transport
systems can be represented in a GIS-T.
ii. Analysis and modeling:– is about how can transport methodologies be
used in a GIS-T.
iii. Applications:- It is about what types of applications are particularly
suitable for GIS-T.
 There have been various data models developed for GIS. The
two basic approaches are object-based data models and field-
based data models:
i. An object-based data model treats geographic space as
populated by discrete and identifiable objects.
 Features are often represented as points, lines, and/or
polygons.
ii. A field-based data model treats geographic space as
populated by real-world features that vary continuously over
space.
 Features can be represented as regular tessellations (e.g., a
raster grid) or irregular tessellations (e.g., triangulated
irregular network - TIN).
 GIS-T studies have employed both object-based and
field-based data models to represent the relevant
geographic data.
 Some transportation problems tend to fit better with
one type of GIS data model than the other.
 For example, network analysis based on the graph
theory typically represents a network as a set of
nodes interconnected with a set of links.
 The object-based GIS data model therefore is a better
candidate for such transportation applications.
 In conclusion, one critical component of GIS-T is how
transportation-related data in a GIS environment can
be best represented in order to facilitate and
integrate the needs of various transportation
applications.
 Existing GIS data models provide a good foundation
of supporting many GIS-T applications.
 However, due to some unique characteristics of
transportation data and application needs, many
challenges still exist to develop better GIS data
models that will improve rather than limit what we
can do with different types of transportation studies
 Information in a GIS is often stored and represented as
layers, which are a set of geographical features linked
with their attributes.
 Therefore, a transport system can be represented as
three layers related to land use, flows, spatial
interactions and the network.
 Each has its own features and related data.