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JAKIR HOSSAIN INSTITUTE OF

PHARMACY
Vill. & P.O: Miapur, P.S: Raghunathganj, Dist. Murshidabad,Pin :742235

INTRODUCTION TO BLOOD

Name: TATHATATA GHOSH


Roll number:
Registration number:
Subject name: Human Anatomy And Physiology - l
Subject code: PT- 105
Semester: 1st
Year: 1st
Academic year: 2024-2025
Course name: B. Pharm
Submitted to : MR. SRIKANTA CHANDRA , Assisstant
Professor
TOPICS SLIDE NO.

CONTENT:-
INTRODUCTION 3
PH SCALE 4
COMPOSITION 5-7
FUNCTION 7
RBC 8-10
WBC 11-15
PLATELETS 16-17
HAEMOGLOBIN 18-19
COAGULATION 20-21
ANTOCOAGULANT 22
BLOOD GROUP 23-24
ABO BLOOD GROUP 25
ANAMEIA 26-27
THALASSAMIA 28-29
CONCLUSION 30
REFERENCES 31 1
BLOOD- INTRODUCTION
A Comprehensive overview

Defination- Blood is a
fluid connective tissue
that circulates throughout
the body, delivering
oxygen and nutrients
while removing waste.
Blood is basis of life.
Blood makes up to about
7% of body weight , more
in male than females .
pH of Blood
 The normal pH of blood is tightly
regulated between 7.35 and 7.45,
making it slightly alkaline.
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD-DIAGRAMATIC VIEW
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

Plasma (55% of blood volume)


A pale yellow liquid that serves as the medium for transporting
nutrients, hormones, waste products, and gases.
Contains water (90%), proteins (e.g., albumin, fibrinogen, globulins),
electrolytes, glucose, and clotting factors.
Red Blood Cells (RBCs) or Erythrocytes (40-45%)
Contain hemoglobin, which transports oxygen from the lungs to
tissues and carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs.Responsible for
the red color of blood.
White Blood Cells (WBCs) or Leukocytes (<1%)
Play a key role in the immune system, defending the body against
infections and foreign invaders.
Includes types like neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes,
eosinophils, and basophils.
Platelets or Thrombocytes (<1%)
Small cell fragments involved in blood clotting to prevent excessive
bleeding.

Functions of Blood
Blood functions include transportation of
gases, nutrients, and waste, regulation of
body temperature, and protection against
infections.
Red Blood Cells (RBC)

 RBCs, also known as erythrocytes, are biconcave cells


responsible for oxygen transport, having no nucleus and
cytoplasmic organelles. They contain a red coloured pigment
protein called haemoglobin.
Red Blood Cells (RBC)
 Lifespan- 120days
 Normal count-3.9-5.5million per microliter (women)

4.1-6 million per microliter (males)


 Size- diameter -7.5 micro meter

thickness at rim- 2.6 micro meter


thickness at center -0.8 micro meter
 Shape- Enucleated

biconcave circular .
Physiological factors influencing the RBC count:
1. Very high at birth
2. Higher in children than adults
3. RBC count is raised in high altitude, in warm temperature,
during excitement
4. In women RBC count is relatively low during pregnancy
 Increase in RBC count - Polycythemia

Decrease in RBC count- Erythropenia


 Formation of RBC – Erythropoesis , takes place in red bone
marrow.
White Blood Cells (WBC)

 WBCs, or leukocytes, are essential for immune defense against


infections and foreign substances.They do not contain
haemoglobin thus they are white not red that is colourless.
 Lifespan- 60days
 Normal count-5000- 10000 m/micro liter
 Size- diameter -12 - 20micro meter .Larger than RBCs
 Shape- Rounded and irregular in shape , capable of amoeboid
movement .
 Difference between Erythrocytes and Leukocytes

1. They are true cells


2. They do not contain Haemoglobin
3. They have their own mobility capacity but RBCs have no
mobility of their own
4. RBCs do not leave vascullar systems but WBCs can leave
vessels
5. Most leukocytes have short lifespan
 Increase in WBC count - Leukocytosis

Decrease in WBC count - Leukopenia


TYPES OF WBCs
NEUTROPHILS60-
70%

GRANULOCYTES–
contain granules in EASINOPHILS2-3%
cytoplasm

BASOPHILS1%
WBCs
MONOCYTES2 -
10%
AGRANULOCYTES
– They do not
contain granules
LYMPHOCYTES20-
25%
DEFINATIONS:
Granulocytes- They contain granules in their cytoplasm.
1. Neutrophils(60-65% )-Their nucleus are many lobed with fine
granules.These are present in maximum amount in WBCs.
2. Eosinophils( 2-3 %)- Their nucleus are bilobed having coarse
granules .They take part in immunity .They are like lysosomes.
They have acidic stains.
3. Basophils(0-1%)- The nucleus are three lobed .They have
basic granules .They are like mast cells.
 Agranular- Their granules are not found in cytoplasm of these
cells.
1. Monocyte(2-10%)- They are the largest of the WBCs and
amoeboid I shape.Have a bean shaped nucleus .They are
Phagocytic in nature.
2. Lymphocyte(20-25%)- They are smaller with less cytoplasm
with rounded nucleus .They produce antibodies.
1. T lymphocyte
2. B lymphocyte
WBCs
Platelets

 Platelets, or thrombocytes, are cell fragments crucial for blood


clotting and wound healing. They are produced in the bone
marrow and help prevent excessive bleeding by forming clots at
the site of injury.
PROPERTIES OF PLATELETS:-
 Each platelet has a peripheral light blue stain transparent zone the
hyalomere and a central zone containing granules called the
granulomere.
 Platelets granules contain calcium ions, ADP, ATP, serotonin,
pyrophosphate, hydrolytic enzymes, P- selectin, fibrinogen, platelet-
derived growth factor, coagulation factor V and XIII and other
substances.
 Platelets are very sticky so appear under light microscope as
clumps of cells.
 Platelets promote blood clotting and help repair gaps in the walls of
blood vessels, preventing loss of blood.
 Normal platelets counts range from 200,000- 400000 per microliter
of blood.
 Thrombopoietin released by kidneys has ability to stimulate
platelets synthesis.
FORMATION OF PLATELETS KNOWN AS THROMBOPOESIS-
Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin is a protein in RBCs that carries oxygen


from the lungs
to the tissues and returns carbon dioxide.
PROPERTIES OF HAEMOGLOBIN
 Hb is the most important constituent of red blood cells. It is responsible for transport of
O2 from lungs to tissues and CO2 from tissues to lungs.
 The normal value in a normal male adult is 13-18 g\100ml and in female is 11.5- 16.5
g\100ml.
 Molecules of hemoglobin is large and complex. They are made up of heme and globin.
 Heme is made up of iron (in ferrous form) and porphyrin.
 Globin is a protein that has 4 polypeptides chains (2 alpha and 2 beta).
 Each unit of Hb contains 4 units of heme that are united together by the alpha and
beta chains of globin.
 Each unit of heme can combine with one molecule of O2. So one molecule of Hb can
carry 4 molecule of O2.
 Each RBC carries about 280 million Hb molecules, therefore each RBC has ability
to carry over a billion O2 molecules.
 Hb with O2 is called oxyhemoglobin, and Hb without O2 called deoxyhemoglobin.

 HAEMOGLOBIN PRODUCTION - Produced in the bone marrow during


erythropoiesis, regulated by erythropoietin.
 HAEMOGLOBIN DEGRADATION- Occurs in the spleen and liver, where
hemoglobin is broken down into heme and globin.
Blood Coagulation
 Coagulation of blood is very
important for stoppage of bleeding
from an injured blood vessel. The
process of coagulation is complex and
involves many steps and many factors
(most of which is proteins). The
factors are identified by roman
numerals (I – XIII), and also given
names as shown in the next slide.
 • These clotting factors activate each
other in specific order resulting in the
formation of prothrombin activator.
 • Prothrombin activator is the first
step in the final common pathway of
blood coagulation.
 In the final common pathway, the
prothrombin activator converts
prothrombin (present in the
plasma) to thrombin (an enzyme).
Thrombin acts on the plasma protein fibrinogen and converts it into insoluble fibers of
fibrin these fibers form a meshwork in which blood get entangled to form a sold clot.

The final common pathway can be initiated by two processes (pathways):


1. Extrinsic pathway occurs due to tissue damage.
2. Intrinsic pathway occurs due to damage to endothelial cells.

Each pathway consists of a number of steps…


Anticoagulation
 The anticoagulation process refers to the physiological or
therapeutic mechanisms that prevent the formation of blood clots
(thrombi) within the circulatory system. It involves inhibiting the
coagulation cascade, a complex series of enzymatic reactions
leading to the formation of fibrin, the protein that stabilizes blood
clots.Mechanisms prevent excessive clotting, e.g., antithrombin,
protein C, and heparin.
Blood Groups

1.The plasma membrane of erythrocytes are composed of lipids and proteins.


2.Several types of proteins are present including A, B proteins
(antigens) and Rh (D)
factor responsible for
person’s blood group.

3.Individuals make
antibodies to these
antigens but not to own
type of antigen
1. Persons of blood group A have antigen of type A on their red
blood cells. Their serum contains antibodies of type B.
2. • Persons of blood group B have antigen of B on their red
blood cells. Their serum contains antibodies of type A.
3. • Persons of blood group AB have antigens of both types A
and B. they do not have type A or type B antibodies.
4. • Persons of blood group O have neither A nor B. antibodies
of both types A and B are present.
5. • Rh factor or antigen (Rhesus factor), about 85% of people
have this antigen own cell membrane of RBC.
ABO System
The ABO system is based on the presence
or absence of antigens A and B on the
surface of RBCs.
Anemia
 Anemia is a condition characterized by a reduced number of RBCs
or hemoglobin, leading to fatigue and weakness. Anemia is a
medical condition characterized by a reduced level of hemoglobin
in the blood, leading to decreased oxygen delivery to tissues. It is
often defined by hemoglobin levels below normal for age, sex, and
physiological state. Anemia is not a disease itself but a symptom of
an underlying condition and is among the most common
hematological disorders worldwide.
Anemia Types
 Iron-deficiency anemia
 Vitamin B12 deficiency anemia
 Hemolytic anemia
 Aplastic anemia.

Anemia Types
 Symptoms include fatigue, pale skin, shortness of breath, dizziness,
and cold hands and feet.
Thalassemia
Thalassemia is a genetic blood disorder affecting hemoglobin
production, leading to anemia.Thalassemia is a group of inherited
blood disorders characterized by the abnormal production of
hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells responsible for carrying
oxygen. This condition leads to the destruction of red blood cells,
causing anemia and various associated complications. Thalassemia
is particularly common in populations from the Mediterranean,
Middle East, South Asia, and Africa, making it a significant global
health concern
Thalassemia Types
• Alpha thalassemia: Affects alpha-globin chain
 • Beta thalassemia: Affects beta-globin chain.

Thalassemia Impact
 Severecases require blood transfusions, and
complications include organ damage and infections.
CONCLUSION
 In conclusion, blood is an essential component of life, serving as
the body's primary transport system for oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, and waste products. It plays a crucial role in maintaining
homeostasis, fighting infections, and facilitating healing processes.
Understanding the composition and functions of blood, as well as
recognizing disorders like anemia, thalassemia, and clotting
abnormalities, underscores its importance in health and medicine.
 Advances in medical science have enabled us to better diagnose,
treat, and manage blood-related conditions, improving quality of
life for millions. By appreciating the intricate workings of blood,
we not only gain insights into our own biology but also recognize
the importance of donating blood, supporting research, and raising
awareness about hematological health. Thank you!
REFERENCES :-
 Anatomy and Physiology in Health and illness, ROSS AND
WILSON
 Human Physiology , C.C.Chatterjee
 Physiological basis of Medical Practice-Best and Tailor. Williams &
Wilkins Co,Riverview,MI USA
 Text book of Medical Physiology- Arthur C,Guyton andJohn.E.
Hall. Miamisburg, OH, U.S.A.
 Principles of Anatomy and Physiology by Tortora Grabowski.
Palmetto, GA, U.S.A.

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