THE DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
Group Assignment done by:

1. ABIGAIL ERMIAS UGR/3206/15

2. AFOMIYA TESHOME UGR/5285/15
3. ARSEMA MANDEFRO UGR/1764/15
4. BARKOT MULUGETA UGR/5909/15
5. BEHAILU TAMRAT UGR/5541/15
6. BEREKET FIKADU UGR/2212/15
7. BETHELHEM MENGISTU UGR/2408/15
8. BITSEAT YHEYS UGR/3169/15
Introduction
Functions of the digestive system
The main functions of the digestive system is divided into six parts
• Ingestion:- the process of taking food and drink into the body is called ingestion.
After food is taken into the mouth, then comes the process of mastication or
chewing. Mastication is reinforced by saliva which further breaks down food in
the mouth.
• Propulsion:- The digestive system’s other main function is swallowing or moving
food through the digestive tract into the stomach where it is then broken down
into its respective parts.
• Mechanical digestion:- As the name suggests mechanical digestion is the physical
process of breaking down food by the sole use of force. This includes the curing of
the stomach and the chewing of food.
Introduction
• Chemical digestion:- Unlike physical digestion, chemical digestion is
when food is broken down within the body by means of different
chemicals which in the case of the human digestive system are
enzymes.
• Absorption:- This can be considered as the main function of the
digestive system when the body is able to absorb or put into use the
various nutrients gained from ingesting food. Digested food is usually
absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine.
• Excretion:- Finally, the digestive system functions as a system that rids
the body of any unwanted and unnecessary waste. By the means of
excretion, the body is clean, healthy and safe.
Layers of the Gastrointestinal
Tract
• The gastrointestinal (GI) tact is a Essential Functions
complex and fascinating system that
plays a vital role in the human body. • The primary functions of the GI
Comprehensive System tract include the mechanical and
chemical breakdown of food, the
• The GI tract is a continuous, hollow absorption of nutrients, and the
tube that extends from the mouth to
the anus. This series of organs,
excretion of waste products. This
including the esophagus, stomach, complex system works in
small intestine, and large intestine, harmony to ensure the body's
are responsible for the digestion, efficient utilization of the
absorption, and elimination of food essential nutrients required for
and waste materials. optimal health and well-being.
Intricate Anatomy
• The GI tract is composed of
multiple layers, each with
specialized structures and
functions. Understanding the
anatomy of these layers, from the
innermost mucosa to the
outermost serosa, is crucial for
healthcare professionals to
recognize and address any
potential issues or disorders within
the GI system.
 The Mucosa
 Epithelium

The innermost layer of the GI tract, the epithelium is responsible for the crucial functions of
secretion and absorption. This specialized tissue plays a vital role in the body's nutrient uptake and
waste elimination processes

 Lamina Propria

Beneath the epithelium lies the lamina propria, a loose connective tissue layer that contains blood
vessels, nerves, and lymphatic structures. This layer supports the epithelium and facilitates the
exchange of nutrients, gases, and waste products.

 Muscularis Mucosae

The muscularis mucosae is a thin layer of smooth muscle fibers that helps to facilitate the
movement and propulsion of the mucosa. This layer works in tandem with the other GI tract
muscles to ensure efficient digestion and waste elimination.
The Submucosa

• Dense Connective Tissue • Submucosal Plexus

The submucosa is composed of a dense layer of Embedded within the submucosa is the submucosal

connective tissue that contains a rich network of plexus, also known as Meissner's plexus. This

blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves. This layer network of neurons is responsible for the control of

provides structural support and plays a crucial role in secretions and blood flow within the GI tract,

the regulation of the GI tract's functions. ensuring optimal digestive function.

The Muscularis Externa

1. Circular Layer
• The inner layer of the muscularis externa is composed of
circular smooth muscle fibers. This layer is responsible for
the coordinated contractions that propel food through the
GI tract, a process known as peristalsis.
2. Longitudinal Layer
• Surrounding the circular muscle layer is the outer
longitudinal layer of smooth muscle fibers. This layer helps
to shorten and widen the GI tract, facilitating the
segmentation of contents and the movement of food
through the system.
3. Myenteric Plexus
• Embedded between the circular and longitudinal muscle
layers is the myenteric plexus, also known as Auerbach's
plexus. This network of neurons is responsible for the
precise coordination of GI tract motility, ensuring efficient
digestion and waste elimination.
The Serosa
 Connective Tissue
The serosa is the outermost layer of the GI tract, composed of a thin layer of connective
tissue covered by a layer of mesothelium. This layer provides a smooth, slippery surface that
reduces friction as the GI organs move within the abdomen.

 Mesothelium
The mesothelial layer of the serosa is a specialized epithelial tissue that secretes a lubricating
fluid, further enhancing the smooth movement of the GI tract within the abdominal cavity.

 Adventitia
In certain regions of the GI tract, such as the esophagus, the outermost layer is known as the
adventitia. This layer consists of connective tissue without the mesothelial lining found in the serosa.
1. Mouth or Buccal Cavity
●Little digestion of food actually takes
place in the mouth. However, through the
process of mastication, or chewing, food
is prepared in the mouth for transport
through the upper digestive tract into the
stomach and small intestine, where the
principal digestive processes take place
Basic Structure
●Cheeks form the walls
●Hard Palate is the roof
●Soft Palate is the posterior roof
●Tongue is the floor
●Lips protecting it
• The opening of the oral cavity is
bounded by the lips.
• The lips are muscular folds
covered internally by mucosa.
• The lateral walls of the oral
cavity are the cheeks.
• The inner walls of the cheeks are
lined by moist stratified
squamous epithelium.
• The lips and cheeks are useful in
the process of mastication and
speech.
Tongue
• It is a large muscular organ.
• It is attached to the floor of the oral
cavity.
• The anterior part of the tongue is free.
• A thin fold of tissue called the
frenulum attaches the free end to the
floor of the mouth.
• The tongue is divided into two parts
by a groove called the terminal sulcus.
• About two thirds of the anterior
surface is covered by papillae.
• Some of them contain taste buds.
Teeth
• There are 32 teeth in the mouth of a
human adult. These are called as
permanent teeth.
• There are 4 different types of
permanent teeth seen. This nature is
known as heterodontism.
• The types of teeth are incisors(8),
canines(4), premolars(8) and
molars(12).
• The dental formula is a shorthand way
of indicating the numbers and relative
positions of the different types of
teeth.
Each tooth consists of three regions.
➢Upper crown
➢Middle neck
➢Basal root
• The crown region has one or more
cusps.
• The tooth is made up of a calcified
tissue called dentine.
• The dentine of the tooth crown is
covered by an extremely hard
substance called enamel.
• The surface of the dentine in the root
is covered with a bonelike substance
called cementum.
• It helps to anchor the tooth in the jaw
Pharynx
• The pharynx, or throat, is the passageway leading from the mouth and
nose to the esophagus and larynx. The pharynx permits the passage of
swallowed solids and liquids into the esophagus, or gullet, and
conducts air to and from the trachea, or windpipe, during respiration.
• The pharynx also connects on either side with the cavity of the middle
ear by way of the Eustachian tube and provides for equalization of air
pressure on the eardrum membrane, which separates the cavity of the
middle ear from the external ear canal.
• There are three main divisions of the pharynx: the oral pharynx, the
nasal pharynx, and the laryngeal pharynx. The latter two are
airways, whereas the oral pharynx is shared by both the respiratory and
digestive tracts.
 • These are scattered throughout the oral
Salivary Gland cavity.
• Three pairs of glands are larger.
The Parotid glands are the largest. They
are located just anterior to the ear on each
side of the head.
The submandibular glands are found on the
inferior borders of the mandible.
The sublingual glands are the smallest.
They lie immediately below the mucous
membrane in the floor of the mouth.
• There are other numerous small, coiled,
tubular glands in the mouth.
• They are Lingual (tongue) gland ,
Palatine (palate) gland , Buccal gland and
Labial (lips) gland
Esophagus
• This part of the digestive tube extends
between the pharynx and the stomach.
• It is about 25 cm long.
• It lies in the mediastinum of the
thorax, anterior to the vertebra and
posterior to the trachea.
• It passes through the diaphragm and
ends at the stomach.
• The esophagus has thick walls.
• The inner wall is lined by a moist
stratified squamous epithelium.
• The upper and lower ends of this tube
have sphincters to regulate the
movements of materials.
• Esophagus receives a bolus from the pharynx and moves it into the
stomach; this requires relaxation of the upper esophageal sphincter
and secretion of mucus.
• As you chew, your tongue helps mold your food into a mass called a
bolus that then gets pushed to the back of your mouth·
• When you swallow, the bolus enters the top of the esophagus·
• The opening of the esophagus lies next to the opening of your
windpipe.
• To prevent food from going down the wrong tube, the opening of
your trachea is closed by the epiglottis (valve) when you swallow
bolus of chewed food.
2. The Stomach
The stomach is a J-shaped, muscular organ located
in the upper part of the abdomen. It is a crucial
component of the digestive system, responsible
for the initial stages of food digestion.
The stomach has four main parts:
1. Cardia
2. Fundus
3. Body
4. Pylorus
The Stomach

1. Cardia: This is the uppermost part of the stomach, where the esophagus connects to the
stomach. It acts as a valve, allowing food to enter the stomach while preventing backflow.
2. Fundus: The fundus is the upper, dome-shaped portion of the stomach, located just above the
cardia. It serves as a reservoir for swallowed food and helps mix the contents of the stomach.
3. Body: The body, or main portion, of the stomach is the largest part. It is responsible for the
storage, digestion, and mixing of food through powerful contractions of the stomach muscles.
4. Pylorus: The pylorus is the lower, narrower part of the stomach that connects to the small
intestine. It acts as a valve, controlling the release of partially digested food (known as chyme)
from the stomach into the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine.
Digestion in the Stomach
1. Mechanical Digestion: The stomach's muscular contractions, known as peristalsis,
mix and churn the food, breaking it down into a thick, soupy mixture called chyme.
2. Chemical Digestion: The stomach produces gastric juice, which contains the
following key components:
- Hydrochloric acid (HCl): Lowers the pH of the stomach, creating an acidic
environment that helps break down food and kills harmful bacteria.
- Pepsin: An enzyme that begins the breakdown of proteins.
- Mucus: Protects the stomach lining from the acidic environment.
The process of digestion in the stomach can be summarized as follows:
1. Food enters the stomach through the esophagus.
2. The stomach's muscular contractions mix the food with gastric juice, creating
chyme.
3. The acidic environment and pepsin enzyme begin the breakdown of proteins.
4. The chyme is gradually released into the small intestine through the pyloric
sphincter for further digestion and absorption.
3. The Small Intestine
The small intestine is a crucial part of
the human digestive system,
responsible for the absorption of
nutrients from the food we consume. It
is a long, coiled tube that connects the
stomach to the large intestine, playing a
vital role in the digestive process.
Anatomy of the Small Intestine

Ileum
Duodenum Jejunum

The final segment of the

The first and shortest The middle segment
small intestine, where the
segment of the small of the small intestine,
remaining nutrients,
intestine, where where most of the
including vitamin B12 and
digestive enzymes from nutrient absorption
bile salts, are absorbed
the pancreas and bile takes place due to its
before the digested
from the liver are added large surface area and
material enters the large
to further break down rich blood supply.
intestine.
food.
Functions of the Small Intestine

1. Digestion 2. Absorption
The small intestine continues the The small intestine is where the majority
breakdown of food, using enzymes of nutrient absorption takes place,
and digestive juices to further break including the absorption of vitamins,
down proteins, carbohydrates, and minerals, and other essential nutrients.
fats.

3. Immune Function 4. Hormone Regulation

The small intestine contains a large The small intestine produces hormones
number of immune cells, playing a that help regulate various bodily
crucial role in the body's defense functions, such as appetite, blood sugar
against harmful pathogens and levels, and the release of digestive
toxins. enzymes.
Digestion and Absorption in the Small Intestine

• Mechanical Digestion
The small intestine uses peristaltic contractions to move food through its length,
mixing it with digestive enzymes and juices to further break down nutrients.

• Chemical Digestion
Enzymes from the pancreas, liver, and intestinal lining continue the breakdown of
proteins, carbohydrates, and fats into smaller, absorbable molecules.

• Nutrient Absorption
The small intestine's large surface area, with its villi and microvilli, allows for the
efficient absorption of the digested nutrients into the bloodstream.
 Nutrient Absorption Mechanisms
Passive Diffusion
Small, lipid-soluble molecules can passively diffuse through the intestinal lining into the bloodstream.

Active Transport
Larger, water-soluble molecules are actively transported across the intestinal lining using specialized carrier
proteins.

Facilitated Diffusion
Some nutrients, like glucose, are transported down their concentration gradient with the help of carrier proteins.

Endocytosis
Large molecules, such as proteins, can be absorbed through the process of endocytosis, where they are engulfed
by the intestinal cells.
Disorders of the Small Intestine
Celiac Disease
An autoimmune disorder where the body attacks the small intestine's lining when gluten is consumed, leading to
malabsorption of nutrients.

Crohn's Disease
An inflammatory bowel disease that can cause inflammation and damage to any part of the digestive tract, including
the small intestine.

Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO)

A condition where there is an excessive growth of bacteria in the small intestine, leading to bloating, diarrhea, and
malabsorption.

Intestinal Obstruction
A blockage in the small intestine that can be caused by scar tissue, tumors, or a twist in the intestine, preventing the
normal flow of digested food.
4. Pancreas
• The pancreas (pan- all; -creas flesh), a retroperitoneal
gland that is about 12–15 cm (5–6 in.) long and 2.5 cm
(1 in.) thick, lies posterior to the greater curvature of
the stomach.
• It is situated horizontally across the upper abdomen,
behind the stomach. It extends from the duodenum (the
first part of the small intestine) to the spleen.
• The pancreas consists of a head, a body, and a tail and
is usually connected to the duodenum by two ducts:
 The head: is the expanded portion of the organ near
the curve of the duodenum
 The body: is the middle section, extending
horizontally across the abdomen.
 The tail: is the narrowest part, reaching towards the
left side of the abdomen.
 Pancreas
The pancreas consists of several important structures:
The small ducts that ultimately unite to form two larger ducts, the pancreatic duct and the accessory
duct.
• The pancreatic duct (duct of Wirsung) is the larger of the two ducts.
• The accessory duct (duct of Santorini), leads from the pancreas and empties into the duodenum
about 2.5 cm (1 in.) superior to the hepatopancreatic ampulla.
In most people, the pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct from the liver and gallbladder and
enters the duodenum as a dilated common duct called the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of
Vater).
 The ampulla opens on an elevation of the duodenal mucosa known as the major duodenal papilla,
which lies about 10 cm (4 in.) inferior to the pyloric sphincter of the stomach.
The passage of pancreatic juice and bile through the hepatopancreatic ampulla into the small
intestine is regulated by a mass of smooth muscle known as the sphincter of the hepatopancreatic
ampulla (sphincter of Oddi).
 Pancreas
 The pancreas is made up of small clusters of glandular
epithelial cells.
• About 99% of the clusters, called Acini, constitute the
exocrine portion of the organ.
• The cells within acini secrete a mixture of fluid and
digestive enzymes called pancreatic juice.
• Pancreatic juices are secreted by exocrine cells into
small ducts .
• The remaining 1% of the clusters, called pancreatic
islets (islets of Langerhans), form the endocrine portion
of the pancreas.
• These cells secrete the hormones glucagon, insulin,
somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide.
5. Liver and Gall
Bladder
• The liver is inferior to the
diaphragm and occupies most of
the right hypochondriac and part
of the epigastric regions of the
abdominopelvic cavity.
• The gallbladder (gall- bile) is a
pear-shaped sac that is located in
a depression of the posterior
surface of the liver.
 The Liver
• The liver is divided into two principal lobes—a
large right lobe and a smaller left lobe— by
the falciform ligament, a fold of the mesentery.
• The falciform ligament extends from the
undersurface of the diaphragm between the
two principal lobes of the liver to the superior
surface of the liver, helping to suspend the liver
in the abdominal cavity
• In the free border of the falciform ligament is
the ligamentum teres (round ligament), a
remnant of the umbilical vein of the fetus this
fibrous cord extends from the liver to the
umbilicus.
• The right and left coronary ligaments are
narrow extensions of the parietal peritoneum
that suspend the liver from the diaphragm
The Gall
Bladder
The parts of the gallbladder include:
• The broad fundus, which projects
inferiorly beyond the inferior
border of the liver
• The body, the central portion
• The neck, the tapered portion. The
body and neck project superiorly.
 Histology of the liver
Histologically, the liver is composed of several components:

1. Hepatocytes 2. Bile canaliculi 3. Hepatic sinusoids

• are the major functional • are small ducts between • are highly permeable
cells of the liver and hepatocytes that collect bile blood capillaries
perform a wide array of produced by the hepatocytes. between rows of
metabolic, secretory, and • From bile canaliculi, bile hepatocytes that receive
endocrine functions. passes into bile ductules and oxygenated blood from
• These are specialized then bile ducts. branches of the hepatic
epithelial cells with 5 to 12 • The bile ducts merge and artery and nutrient-rich
sides that make up about eventually form the larger deoxygenated blood
80% of the volume of the right and left hepatic ducts, from branches of the
liver. Hepatocytes form which unite and exit the liver hepatic portal vein
complex three-dimensional as the common hepatic duct
arrangements called
hepatic laminae
Blood supply of the liver
• Hepatic artery (25%) – oxygenated
• Hepatic portal vein (75%) – deoxygenated blood, nutrient- rich
• Oxygen comes equally form both sources
• Terminal branches of hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery empty
together and mix entering the liver
• Blood flows through liver sinusoids, empties into central vein of each
lobule
• Central veins coalesce into hepatic veins
• Blood exits liver via hepatic vein and returns to the heart via IVC,
deoxygenated and detoxified
Functions of the liver
• Carbohydrate metabolism
• Lipid metabolism
• Protein metabolism
• Processing of drugs and hormones
• Excretion of bilirubin
• Synthesis of bile salts
• Storage
• Phagocytosis
• Activation of vitamin D
6. The Large Intestine
 What is the large intestine?
• The large intestine is the last part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, the long, tube-like
pathway that food travels through your digestive system.
• It follows from the small intestine and ends at the anal canal, where food waste leaves your body.
• The large intestine, also called the large bowel, is where food waste is formed into poop, stored,
and finally excreted.
• It includes the colon, rectum and anus. Sometimes “colon” is also used to describe the entire large
intestine.
• The large intestine is in your lower abdominal cavity from your waist down. It surrounds the
small intestine in a sort of a square question mark shape, with the tail of the question mark
ending at the anal canal .
• The large intestine looks like a semi-flat, segmented tube that lays loosely around the edges of
the abdominal cavity. A seam runs vertically down the middle of the tube, making the segments
bulge on either side of it.
• The large intestine is about six feet long — much shorter than the small intestine, which is 22
feet. It’s called the large intestine because it's wider about three inches, while the small intestine
is only one inch in diameter.
• Layers of muscles and tissues make up the intestinal walls. Separate layers of circular muscles and
longitudinal muscles allow the intestine to contract in different ways. The mucous lining provides
blood supply, nerve endings and glands that secrete and absorb.
• The large intestine is one long tube, but slightly different things happen in different parts of it. Its
three parts are the colon, the rectum and the anus. The colon can also be divided into parts. The
entry point, about six inches long, is called the cecum.
Function
What does the large intestine do?
• When the large intestine receives food from the small intestine, the food has been liquefied by
the digestive process and most of the nutrients have been absorbed. The colon’s job Is to
dehydrate what’s left of the food and form it into stool. It does this by slowly absorbing water and
electrolytes as its muscle system moves the waste along. Meanwhile, bacteria living in your colon
feed on the waste and break it down further, completing the chemical part of the digestive
process.
Cecum
The cecum is the beginning of the colon. The small intestine feeds into the cecum through
a small channel in the side of it (the ileocecal valve), so the end of the cecum is actually
closed like a pouch. This pouch, the first 6 inches of the colon, is also the widest portion of
the large intestine. This is the reservoir where food from the small intestine arrives in the
large intestine. When the cecum is full, it triggers the muscle movements of the colon to
begin.
 Colon
As food proceeds to the ascending colon, it travels upward and eventually sideways across the
transverse colon. These segments frame the small intestine, which is coiled inside. Any remaining
water and electrolytes are absorbed in the ascending and transverse colon so that the food waste
that arrives in the descending colon is mostly solid. The colon secretes mucus to bind and lubricate
the food waste to help it pass through smoothly as it is dehydrated. Like the small intestine, the
large intestine churns the food against its mucous lining and also moves it forward through periodic
muscle contractions. But this process is much slower in the large intestine is about 24 hours.
Digestion also happens here, but not by enzymes as it did in the small intestine. Here, friendly gut
bacteria break down the remaining carbohydrates to produce key vitamins (B and K) that are
absorbed through the mucosa. This takes longer.
Rectum Anus
By the time the sigmoid colon delivers the food The anus is the canal your poop will travel through to
waste to the rectum, it resembles the poop you leave your body. It’s closed on each side by a muscle
know. The poop now consists of indigestible matter sphincter. On the inside, the internal sphincter opens
and dead cells shed from your intestinal mucosa, automatically to let poop through. The outer sphincter

along with small amounts of mucus and water. If is the one you control to let poop out when you’re

about 16 ounces of liquid food entered the large ready. When poop in the rectum triggers the urge to

intestine, about 5 ounces of it remain as poop. defecate, nerve signals cause the internal sphincter to

When poop enters the rectum, it triggers the urge relax. This is your cue to find a toilet where you can let

to defecate. This is the natural continuation of the the poop out through

mass muscle movements of the colon. your external sphincter.

Thank you