Research Methods and Techniques

Module Code: CUDE6023

Hirpo Berisso (PhD)

College of Urban Development and Engineering,
ECSU

July, 2024
 I. Module Outcome
By the End of the Module Participants will be able to:
 Understand the basics of research;
 Design smart research proposal. Undertake research on

different topic independently and in a team;

 Write and present the findings of the research in an attractive

and understandable manner to the audience;

 Conduct a critical or analytical review of relevant literature

pertaining to their proposed research projects

 Evaluate the methodology of other research reports
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 II. Module Outline
Sessions Topic to be Covered

1 Introduction and Types of Research

2 Data Collecting and Measuring
3 Sample, Sampling Design and Sampling Distribution
4 Variables & Scale of Measurements
5 Research Proposal Development
6 Research Ethics
7 Referencing Styles
8 Qualitative Research methods & Approaches to Data Analysis
9 Quantitative Data Analysis (Descriptive Statistics)
10 Quantitative Data Analysis (Inferential Statistics)
11-14 Practical Sessions on the Application of SPSS 3
 III. Assessment

 Test 20%

 Individual Assignment (Research Proposal Development ) 20%

 Group Assignment 20%

 Final Examination 40%

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 IV. Module Policy
 Attendance is mandatory
 Expectation for Classroom Behavior
 Contribute in class discussion
 Meet assignment deadlines
 Discipline
 Punctuality
 Cell phones must be switched off

 Late submission is not acceptable

 Missing Exam and Tests (medical case & emergency only)
 Need to be supplemented by relevant documents
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1. Introduction to Research
Contents of the Session:
 Meaning of Research
 Objectives of Research
 Motivation in Research
 Significance of Research
 Characteristics of Research
 Research Paradigms
 The Research Process
 Units of Analysis
 Types of Research
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1. Introduction to Research

Learning Objectives:
By the end of this session, participants will be able to:
 Recognize concepts and essence of research

 Appreciate the objectives of research

 Identify characteristics of research

 Compare the research paradigms

 Familiarize with the research process

 Identify types of research based on different bases

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 1.1 Meaning of Research

 Scientific and systematic search for pertinent

information on specific topic (Kumar, 2008)
The systematic method consisting of stating the
problem, …collecting the facts or data, analyzing the
facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form
of solution(s) towards the concerned problem or in
certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.

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1.1 Meaning of Research … Cont’d
 A careful investigation or inquiry especially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge (Oxford
Advanced Learner's Dictionary)
 A methodical investigation into a subject in order to
discover facts, to establish or revise a theory, or to
develop a plan of action based on the facts discovered.
 Movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually
a voyage of discovery.
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Why we conduct Research?

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 1.2 Objectives of Research
 To move beyond guesswork and to test commonsense.

 To know what really is going on & for accurate answers.

 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new

insights into it.
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group.
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs
or with which it is associated with something else.
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables.
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 1.3 Motivation in Research
What makes people to undertake research? The possible motives for
doing research may be either one or more of the following:
 To get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
 To face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems
 To get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
 To be of service to society;
 To get respectability;
 Directives of government, employment conditions;
curiosity about new things,
desire to understand causal relationships, and the like may as
well motivate people to perform research operations. 12

1.4 Significance of Research
“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than
overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to
invention”
 Increased amounts of research make progress possible.
 Research promotes the development of logical habits of thinking
&
organization.
 Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added
importance,
both for government and business.
 Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in
our economic system.
 Through research we can devise alternative policies and can as13well
 1.5 Characteristics of Research

1. Controlled:- In real life there are many factors that affect an

outcome. The effects of other factors affecting the relationship
should be minimized.

2. Rigorous:- the procedures followed to find answers to questions

are relevant, appropriate and justified.

3. Systematic:- the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation

follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be

taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.

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 Characteristics of Research ... Cont’d

4. Valid and verifiable:- conclusion on the basis of findings

is correct and can be verified by you and others.

5. Empirical:- Any conclusions drawn are based upon hard

evidence gathered from information collected from real-life
experiences or observations

6. Critical:- The process of investigation must be foolproof

& free from drawbacks.

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 1.6 Research Paradigms

There are two main paradigms that form the basis of research
in the social sciences.

 Positivist approach and

 Naturalistic approach

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 I Positivism
 Positivism in social research is associated with
questionnaires,
social surveys and experimental design
 They thus end up producing quite different kinds of data; the
one `hard', numerate and statistical, the other `soft', rich &
taking the form of extracts of natural language.
 There is a `real world' out there independent of people's

perceptions of it: the social world is revealed to us, not

constructed by us. 17
 II Naturalism
 Naturalism favors ethnography, unstructured interviews & other
qualitative techniques.
 Constructionists believe that people make their own reality and that
there are no universal laws external to human interaction waiting to
be discovered
 Thus there is no sharp distinction between sociological knowledge
and social reality.
 The origins of social constructionism are deeply rooted in the history
of the social science disciplines.

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Comparing positivist/objectivist) and naturalist/interpretivist)
approaches to research
Positivist Naturalist
The purpose of research is to Realities are multiple, constructed, and
discover the truth. holistic. The purpose is to understand meaning
from the perspectives of the participants.
Knower and known (or observer Knower and known are interactive,
and observed) must remain inseparable.
separate to limit observer bias.
Emphasis on control of Control of extraneous variables is rejected,
extraneous variables. instead, they must be described and their
possible influence accounted.
Research participant are Participants are often asked for their taken on
“objectified”-frequently referred the interpretation of the results.
to as research subjects.
Data is often quantified, even if Data is often non-numeric. The focus is on
it is descriptive. rich description of the event(s) and context.
Focus on generalization of Focus on unique aspects of the context,
research findings generalization is downplayed.
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 Ontology
• It is a branch of philosophy which studies about the
nature of reality.
• In social science research, ontological positions held by
researchers affect the entire research undertaking (from
problem formulation to the methodological approaches,
further to conclusions).
These ontologies are:
– Realism – There is only a single reality
– Constructivism, (also called
Subjectivism/Phenomenology) – there are multiple
realities.
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 Epistemology
• Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies
(theory of) knowledge and knowing! It investigates “how
we know, what we claim to know”
• Thus, there are two main ontological positions that
shape epistemologies of social science research.

1. Knowledge is out there waiting to be discovered (i.e.

reality is absolute and independent of our perception
or experience)
2. People develop knowledge based on perception &
experience (i.e. There are multiple realities; and it all
depends on peoples’ interpretation)
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 Epistemology & Methodology
• Epistemology is the science of knowing;
• Methodology (a subfield of epistemology) might be
called the science of finding out (Babbie, 2011)
• How does epistemology guide methodology
– What is the epistemological differences between
qualitative and quantitative research?
Today, it will not be accurate to consider quantitative
research (or researchers) as entirely guided by radical
realist or positivist epistemology.
Nor can we conclude, qualitative research and
researchers are radical subjectivists.
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Philosophical views of existence of
reality/truth

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Epistemologies- Paradigms

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 Axiology
• Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies values.
It deals with questions like: “what do we value?”,
“what values should guide research?” and the like.
• However, in research, depending on which ontological
and epistemological positions we take, what is
considered worth while may vary.

• Thus, axiological questions in research include:

– Can research be neutral or do our personal values
shape how we do research?
– Should research seek to just understand the world
as is or seek to change the world?
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26
 1.7 Theory and Research
 Two aspects of a single process (are inseparable) by which human
knowledge is produced and continuously upgraded.
 Theory is a set of systematically/logically interrelated propositions

that attempts to describe, explain, and predict events.

 Theory guides research and research contributes in theory
generation, verification and refutation
 Theory-research cycle has two approaches: Inductive & deductive

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A. Inductive Approach:
It means moving from the specific to the general i.e. act of making

an inference

1. Begins with empirical observation: namely the collection &

analysis of data

2. Generalizations are then made on the basis of the observation,

3. Generalizations are logically fitted together to formulate a theory.

4. Sometimes referred as theory-building or theory-generation

research

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 A. Inductive Approach … Cont’d

5. Methods associated with it are known by the generic term, qualitative

research

Example
 This ice is cold. (Specific, based on a direct observation).
 All ice is cold. (General, applicable to any ice)
 3 + 5 = 8 and eight is an even number.
 Therefore, an odd number added to another odd number will
result in an even number.
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Summary of Flow of Deductive and Inductive Approaches

Deductive Approach Inductive Approach

THEORY
THEORY

HYPOTHESIS
HYPOTHESIS

OBSERVATION
PATTERN

CONFIRMATION
OBSERVATION

Is our theory valid or not?

General pattern and tentative hypothesis
is developed as the foundation of a theory
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1.8 The Research Process
1. Problem Identification

8. Reporting the Finding 2. Literature Review

3. Making the Research

7. Interpreting the Results
Problem Precise

6. Analyzing the Data 4. Designing the Research

& Clearly Define Terms
and Concepts

5. Define the Population

And Collecting Data 32
 I. Problem/Topic Identification
 Research problem is factual ignorance
 Research problem is not equal to social problem
 Research problems may
 Come up as part of on-going work; one research project may
easily lead to another,
 Be suggested by reading the work of other researchers
 Arise out of a certain awareness of specific trends
 Can have three sources:
1) Own experience,
2) Scientific literature, and
3) Theories.
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 I. Problem/Topic Identification … Cont’d

Research topic is influenced by:

o Interest of the researcher
o Current debate in the academic world
o Funding
o Power of research subjects

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 Research Problems and Practical Problems
• Everyday research usually begins not with
dreaming up a topic but with solving a practical
problem that has just landed on you, a problem
that left unresolved, means trouble.
• When the solution is not obvious, you ask
questions whose answers you hope will help you
solve it.
• But to answer them, you must pose and solve a
problem of another kind, a research problem
defined by what you do not know or understand,
but feel you must before you can solve your
practical problem.
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The r/p b/n practical & research problems looks like this:

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 Distinguishing Practical Problems and Research
Problems
• Though solving a practical problem usually requires
that we solve a research problem as well, it is crucial
to distinguish between them, because we solve and
write about them in different ways.
A practical problem is caused by some condition in
the world that makes us unhappy because it costs us
time, money, respect, security, pain, even our lives.
You solve a practical problem by doing something
that changes the world by eliminating the causes
that lead to its costs, or by encouraging others to do
so.
A research problem is motivated not by palpable
unhappiness, but by incomplete knowledge or
flawed understanding. You solve it not by changing
the world but by understanding it better.
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 Distinguishing Practical & Research Problems…
• Though a research problem is often motivated by a
practical problem, you don’t solve the practical
problem just by solving the research one.
• The term problem thus has a special meaning in the
world of research, one that sometimes confuses
beginners.
• In our everyday world, a practical problem is
something we try to avoid.
• But in the academic world, a research problem is
something we eagerly seek out, even inventing one,
if we have to.
• Indeed, a researcher without a good research
problem has a bad practical one, because with no
research problem to work on, she has nothing to do.
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 Rules in defining a research problem
1. Be sure that the topic you choose is neither too vague
nor too broad in scope.
2. To make the problem clearer and more understandable,
state it as a question that will require a definite answer.
3. Carefully state the limits of the problem, eliminating all
aspects and factors that will not be considered in the
study. Sometimes some thesis students are unable to
exclude from the thesis certain aspects of the topic
because of the feeling that they must consider everything
about the thesis topic. Well, the more you are unable to
delimit your study, the more likely you will not be able to
do a good job of it.
4. Define any special term that must be used in the
statement of the problem.
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 Sources of research topics
• As thesis students, you may find it difficult at times
to decide what research to undertake, more so what
specific title to work on.
• Not a few have complained, “I can’t think of a
problem” to which I have jestingly responded, “good
for you if you don’t have a problem.”
• Perhaps the difficulty lies in the fact that not a few
thesis students depend largely on what potential
research titles they can think of instead of trying to
gain a clear understanding of the research literature
on the topic of their interest.
• A clear understanding of what gaps exist in the
current literature is still the best way to identify
potential research problems to work on.
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 Sources of research topics…
1. A thorough understanding of the known facts
and accepted ideas in the field being pursued is a
necessity. That is to say, you must try to be on
top of your discipline. Always keep abreast of
the recent developments in your field.
2. Use your natural curiosity as guide for selecting
a problem. Of course, satisfaction of personal
curiosity is a desirable incentive in selecting a
topic to study, but this is not all. The
presumption is that your curiosity rises as you
gain a deeper understanding of the gaps in the
body of knowledge of your field.
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 Sources of research topics…
3. Young and inexperienced researchers should choose
short and clear topics. Such researchers may not have the
necessary capability to deal with broad and complicated
research problems. All thesis students have this feeling
that their respective theses will solve the problems of the
world. This must be one of the reasons why you almost
always think of very broad research issues because of the
idea that your thesis, being your first professional work,
will become very important and will open all doors for you
professionally. It is, indeed, motivating to think in those
terms. But is also always advisable to keep your feet on
the ground. Again, do not try to solve the problems of
the world by yourself with your thesis. But do try to do a
good job of your thesis so that you can contribute to the
increasing body of knowledge and ultimately help your
discipline advance.
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 Sources of research topics
• There are, essentially, two ways of identifying a
research topic.
– One is through the literature – books and academic
and professional journals – which may raise
interesting themes and topics that can be related to
your own organization.
– The other route is directly from the workplace or
community setting.

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Here are 5 questions that will help you clarify your
research problem:
1. Is the problem interesting? It is better to work on
something that interests you.
2. Is the problem new? Choose a problem that is relatively
new but has not been fully studied.
3. Will the study add to knowledge? You must be convinced
that by doing the study you will contribute new
knowledge.
4. Is the problem feasible? Choose problems that you can
manage, those that can be feasibly undertaken.
5. Has anyone else had a prior claim to it? You may not be
able to claim credit for a research problem that has
already been studied previously by other researchers,
but you may be able to arrive at other findings.
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 DEFINING YOUR TOPIC
• Well, you’re probably not alone.
• Yes, there are plenty of students who are quite
clear about what they want to research, but
there are also a lot who really struggle with the
idea of generating a research topic.
• So how do you decide on a topic that can lead to
a potential research question?
• Well, you work on generating ideas by honing in
on your curiosity, using your creativity, and
exploring your options with an eye towards
practicalities.
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 The importance of curiosity
• Ideas for research are generated any time curiosity
or passion is aroused.
• Everyday we are surrounded by events, situations,
and interactions that make us wonder, stop and
think, or bring emotions of joy, frustration, relief, or
anger bubbling to the surface.
• This is the rich and fertile ground from which
research ideas are born.
• Think about what stirs you up, what you argue about
with your friends, family, and peers, and what issues
are topical in the world, at home, or in your
workplace.
• You will soon find that research topics abound.
• If you can learn to catch yourself thinking, you will
have an unending supply of ideas. 46
 FROM INTERESTING TOPICS TO RESEARCHABLE QUESTIONS
• If a topic defines the general area you are
examining, then the research question defines
what aspects of that topic you plan to
investigate.
• Going from a topic of interest to a well-defined
research question, however, is no easy task.
• You need to move from a topic to an issue,
narrow it all down to a manageable scope, and
finally generate researchable questions.

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 FROM INTERESTING TOPICS TO RESEARCHABLE QUESTIONS…
Finding an angle
• Moving from broad topical interests to questions
that can be answered through the research
process often involves finding an ‘angle’. In
looking for an angle you may want to consider:
– Personal experiences,
– Theory,
– An observation,
– Contemporary/timely issues, and
– Gaps in the literature.

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 FROM INTERESTING TOPICS TO RESEARCHABLE QUESTIONS
• FROM TOPICS TO RESEARCHABLE QUESTIONS

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 II. Literature Review
 Literature is reviewed in order to:
 Check if the problem is addressed by previous researches

 Insight how previous researches addressed similar issue

 What they left unanalyzed

 Identify theoretical and conceptual framework

 Refine the research problem

 Use publications < 10 years old unless it is timeless theoretical

publications

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 Exploring the literature
• I often tell students that before they begin ‘doing’
research, they need to convince me of three things:
(1)that the questions they wish to answer are worthy
of research;
(2)that they are the right person for the job (they know
their stuff); and
(3) their methodological approach is the best ‘doable’
way of getting the answers to the questions they
pose.
• And to do this, they need to read.
• They need to show me that they have thoroughly
engaged with both the general and scientific
literature in their area.
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III. Refining the Research Problem
 Identification of the general and specific objectives of the research;

 Five Ws that help to refine the research:

 What is your research?

 Why do you want to do the research?

 Who will be your participant?

 Where are you going to conduct your research?

 When are you going to conduct your research?

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 IV Working out the Research Design
 Decide which research design and method to use based on the
objective of the study on the basis of :-
• Reliability

• Validity

• Representativeness

 Customizing to the particular needs and research condition

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 V. Data Collection

 Unforeseen practical difficulties may crop up

Example.

 It might be difficult to contact respondents,

 The municipality might not cooperate with you

 Don’t frustrate, but be creative

Example.
 If you fail to interview the mayor look for the letters, minutes,

interviews he gave, etc.

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 VI. Analyzing Data
 The process of bringing raw data into order.
 The process of conceptualizing i.e. reducing the bulky raw data
into workable, ordered bits of information.
 Raw data will be summarized into:
 Numeric (quantitative) description or
 Non-numeric (qualitative) description
Examples include
 30% of the land is privately owned (statistical)
 According to the research, holding the land market information by
the brokers is one of the reasons for land speculation (qualitative)
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 VII. Interpreting the Results
 The researchers troubles are not yet over

 Relate the findings of the study with the research objectives

 E.g. Suppose the purpose of the research is to identify loopholes in

urban land management. After thorough analysis of the land

management the study should have to list those loopholes.
 Many studies fail to address their objectives

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 VIII. Reporting the Research Findings

 Final stage in terms of an individual research

 However, it can be the beginning of a new research

 Publish in book, journal article or thesis

 Oral presentation

 Not all researches neatly follow all steps

 Some experienced researchers might combine different stages or

reverse the order

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1.9 Units of Analysis
 Are the units of observations
 Are those things under examination in order to create summary
descriptions of all such units and to explain differences among
them
 One research can have multiple units of Analysis

Example: If a research describes the housing condition, mean

household income, the unemployment rate, then the units of analysis
are houses, families and individual residents.
 Common Units of Analysis in Social Research

A. Individuals: human beings in terms of their membership in social

groupings like income of the family, Education level, …
B. Groups: small gangs, different segments of society, families, …

C. Organizations: Church, colleges, army divisions, academic

departments, supper markets, …

D. Social interactions: Telephone calls, kisses, dancing, arguments, e-

mail exchanges, chat room discussions, friendship choices, court

cases, divorces, traffic accidents, …
E. Social Artifacts: books, poems, paintings, automobiles, buildings,
songs, pottery, …
 1.10 Types of Research

Types of research can be looked at from three different perspectives:

 Applications of the findings of the research study;

 Objectives of the study;

 Mode of enquiry used in conducting the study.

 Types of Research

From the viewpoint of

Application Objectives Inquiry mode

Explorator
Descriptive Quantitative
Pure research
y research
research
research
Correlational Explanator
Applied research
Qualitative
y research
research research
A. Types of Research: Application Perspective

Two broad categories from the perspective of its application:

I. Pure Research

II. Applied Research.

I.Pure/Basic/Fundamental Research
Involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are

intellectually challenging to the researcher but may not have

practical

application at the present time or in the future.

 Concerned with the development, examination, verification and

refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques and

tools

that form the body of research methodology.

I. Pure/Basic/Fundamental Research:
 Concerned with increasing knowledge of how societies work
(The approach leads to knowledge - for knowledge sake)
 Purely academic
 Means of discovery/invension
 Extensive in nature
 Carried in laboratory or some other sterile environment,
sometimes with animals
 It is not of immediate commercial purpose
I. Pure/Basic/Fundamental Research … Cont’d
 May later result in further result of an applied nature

 It may have implications for social policy,

 Mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation

of a theory.
 II. Applied Research
 For direct application of its findings;

 Improving a product of a process-testing theoretical concepts in

actual problem situations

 Intensive in nature

 To do something better or in an efficient manner;

 Information gathered can be used to guide policy formulation,

program, project or action; and for the enhancement of

understanding of a phenomenon.
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 II. Applied Research … Cont’d

Example:
 To guide practical urban problem solving & management exercise:

 Solid waste management in the CBD of Addis Ababa.

 Improving drainage infrastructure problem in Hawassa City.

 Need assessment studies, social impact assessments and

 All researches conducted before formulation of a policy.

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B. Types of Research: Objectives Perspective
 From the perspective of its objectives, broadly a research endeavor
can be classified as
I. Descriptive
II. Correlational
III. Explanatory
IV. Exploratory.
I. Descriptive
 A research study classified as a descriptive study attempts to
describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon,
service or program, or provides information about, say, the living
conditions of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.
I. Descriptive … Cont’d
 For example to describe
 Types of service provided by an organization
 Administrative structure of an organization
 Living conditions of aboriginal people in the outback
 Needs of a community
 What it means to go through a divorce
 How a child feels living in a house with domestic violence
 The attitudes of employees towards management.
 The main purpose of such studies is to describe what is prevalent
with respect to the issue/problem under study.
 II. Correlational Study

 The main emphasis in a correlational study is to discover or establish

the existence of a relationship/association/interdependence between

two or more aspects of a situation.

 II. Correlational Study … Cont’d
Example
 What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of
a product?
 What is the relationship between stressful living and the incidence
of heart attack?
 What is the relationship between fertility and mortality?

 What is the relationship between technology and unemployment?

 What is the effect of a health service on the control of a disease,

or the home environment on educational achievement?

 III. Explanatory Research
 Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a

relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.

Example
 Why stressful living results in heart attacks;
 Why a decline in mortality is followed by a fertility decline
 How the home environment affects children’s level of academic
achievement.
 IV. Exploratory Research
 This is when a study is undertaken with the objective either to

explore an area where little or none is known or to investigate the

possibilities of undertaking a particular research study.

 When a study is carried out to determine its feasibility it is also

called a feasibility study or a pilot study.

Exploratory studies are also conducted to develop, refine and/or

test measurement tools and procedures.

 IV. Exploratory Research … Cont’d

 Exploratory research can come in two big forms: either a new topic

or a new angle (from new ways of looking at things, either from a

theoretical perspective or a new way of measuring something).

Example

 How to increase flavors of spaghetti?

 A new way to managing informal activities

C. Types of Research: Mode of Enquiry Perspective
 This is typology of research based on the process the researcher

adopts to find answers to research questions. Broadly, there are two

approaches to enquiry:

1. Structured/Quantitative Approach;

2. Unstructured /Qualitative Approach

 I. Structured Approach

 Everything that forms the research process (objectives, design,

sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents) is

predetermined

 More appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or

phenomenon
 II. Unstructured Approach

 Allows flexibility in all these aspects of the process

 Predominantly used to explore its nature, in other words,
variation/
diversity per se in a phenomenon, issue, problem or attitude
towards an issue
 Structured or Unstructured?
 Both approaches have their place in research.

 Both have their strengths and weaknesses.

 Neither one is markedly superior to the other in all respects

 One should not ‘lock’ him/her self solely into a structured or

unstructured approach.

 In many studies you need to combine both qualitative & quantitative

approaches.
 Structured or Unstructured? … Cont’d
 For example, suppose you want to find out the types of service
available to victims of domestic violence in a city and the extent of
their utilization.
 Types of service are the qualitative aspect of the study as finding
out

about them entails description of the services.

 The extent of utilization of the services is the quantitative aspect as

it involves estimating the number of people who use the services

& calculating other indicators that reflect the extent of utilization.

 Are these Types of Research Mutually Exclusive?

 The classification of the types of a study on the basis of these

perspectives is not mutually exclusive:

 That is, a research study classified from the viewpoint of

‘application’ can also be classified from the perspectives of

‘objectives’ and ‘enquiry mode’ employed.

 Are these Types of Research Mutually ... ?

 For example, a research project may be classified as pure or applied

research (from the perspective of application), as descriptive,

correlational, explanatory or exploratory (from the perspective of

objectives) and as qualitative or quantitative (from the perspective

of the enquiry mode employed).

Thank You!

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