WIND ENERGY

Betz limit or Betz's law

The Betz limit, also known as Betz's law, is a theoretical maximum
efficiency for a wind turbine, which states that no wind turbine can
capture more than 59.3% of the kinetic energy in the wind. This limit
was derived by German physicist Albert Betz in 1919 and is a
fundamental principle in wind energy.
Explanation of Betz's Law
Basic Concept: When wind passes through a wind turbine, it transfers
some of its kinetic energy to the rotor blades, which convert it into
mechanical energy (and then into electrical energy). However, a turbine
cannot capture all the wind’s energy because doing so would stop the
wind completely behind the turbine, preventing any further air from
flowing through. Betz's law calculates the optimal amount of energy that
can be extracted while still allowing air to flow past the turbine.
Mathematical Expression: The Betz limit is expressed mathematically
as:
Implications for Wind Turbines:
1. The theoretical maximum efficiency of any wind turbine is 59.3%.
2. Real-world wind turbines typically achieve efficiencies (power
coefficients) ranging from 35% to 45% due to factors such as blade
design, aerodynamic losses, mechanical losses, and generator
efficiency.
Site selection for windfarms
High annual average wind speed :
The speed generated by the wind mill depends on cubic values of
velocity of wind, the small increases in velocity markedly affect the
power in the wind. For example, Doubling the velocity, increases power
by a factor of 8.
Availability of anemometry data :
It is another improvement siting factor. The aenometry data
should be available over some time period at the precise spot where any
proposed WECS is to be built and that this should be accomplished
before a siting decision is made.
Availability of wind v(t) curve at the proposed site :
This important curve shows the maximum energy available in the
wind, which is crucial for predicting how much electricity a wind
energy system (WECS) can produce and how much revenue it can
generate.
For a wind energy system to work well, it is ideal to have an
average wind speed of at least 12-16 km/hr (3.5 – 4.5 m/s). This is the
minimum wind speed at which most large wind generators start to turn
and produce electricity.
The wind speed curve, v(t), also affects the reliability of the
power generated by the wind system. If the wind speed drops to zero, no
power will be generated during that time. If there are long periods with
no wind ("calm periods"), the reliability of the wind energy system will
be lower compared to when these calm periods are short.
Wind structure at the proposed site :
The best situation for a wind energy system (WECS) would be a
location where the wind speed, shown by the v(t) curve, is steady and
constant, blowing at a consistent speed all the time. However, in reality,
most sites are far from perfect.
Altitude of the proposed site :
It affects the air density and thus the power in the
wind and hence the useful WECS electric power
output. Also, as is well known, the wind tend to
have higher velocities at higher altitudes. One must
carefully distinguish altitude from height above
ground. They are not the same except for a sea level
WECS site.
Terrain and its aerodynamic :
When choosing a site for a wind energy system (WECS), it is
important to consider the terrain. Placing a wind turbine near the top
(but not at the very top) of a hill facing the main wind direction can
cause the wind to speed up, which can increase energy production.
However, the wind may not always flow horizontally in such
locations. This means the turbine's rotor might need to be tilted to stay
perpendicular to the wind for maximum efficiency.
Hills or mountains can also be useful if they channel the wind
through a narrow pass, which can increase wind speed and power.
Local ecology
If the surface is base rock it may mean lower hub height hence
lower structure cost. If trees or grass or vegetation are present, all of
which tend to destructors the wind, the higher hub heights will be
needed resulting in large system costs than the bare ground case.
Distance to road or railways :
This is another factor the system engineer must consider for
heavy machinery, structure, materials, blades and other apparatus will
have to be moved into any chosen WECS site.
Nearness of site to local centre/users :
This obvious criterion minimizes transmission line length and
hence losses and cost. After applying all the previous siting criteria,
hopefully as one narrows the proposed WECS sites to one or two they
would be relatively near to the user of the generated electric energy.
Nature of ground :
Ground condition should be such that the foundation for a WECS
are secured. Ground surface should be stable. Erosion problem should
not be there, as it could possibly later wash out the foundation of a
WECS, destroying the whole system.
Favourable land cost :
Land cost should be favorable as this along with other siting
costs, enters into the total WECS system cost. Other conditions such as
icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust should not present at the site,
as they may affect aero turbine blades or environment is generally
adverse to machinery and electrical apparatus.
Wind resource assessment
Surface features have a major impact on local wind, and can increase
or decrease in wind power and speed and cause turbulence.
Flat terrain with obstacles causes turbulence and decrease in wind
power and speed for a significant distance from object
Surface roughness friction between the earth and the wind cause the
wind speed to be lower closer to the surface.
Need for Wind Turbine
1. Wind energy is abundant, renewable, widely distributed, clean and mitigates the
greenhouse effect if used to replace fossil-fuel-derived electricity.
2. Conversion of wind power/energy into more useful forms is done by wind turbines.
3. Wind turbines are usually used to generate power but in certain applications are used
as prime movers to pump water (wind mills).
4. Wind power is used in large scale wind farms for national electrical grids as well as in
small individual turbines for providing electricity to rural residences or grid isolated
locations. In 2005, worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was 58,982
megawatts; although it currently produces less than 1 % of world-wide electricity use,
it accounts for 23 % of electricity use in Denmark, 4.3 % in Germany and
approximately 8 % in Spain. Globally, wind power generation more than 14
quadrupled between 1999 and 2005.
5. A wind turbine is a machine for converting the kinetic energy in wind into mechanical
energy. If the mechanical energy is then converted to electricity, the machine is called a
wind generator. Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy.
Working of Wind Turbine
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
(HAWT)
Advantages of HAWT
1. The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear.
In some wind shear sites, every ten meters up the wind speed can increase by
20 % and the power output by 34 %.
2. High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicular to the wind,
receiving power through the whole rotation.
Disadvantages of HAWT
3. Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox,
and generator.
4. Components of horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake
assembly) being lifted into position.
5. HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades
toward the wind.
6. HAWTs generally require a braking or yawing device in high winds to stop
the turbine from spinning and destroying or damaging itself.
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines(VAWT)
Advantages of VAWT
1. No yaw mechanisms is needed
2. A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the
moving parts.
3. VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than the typical the HAWTs.
4. VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
5. VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations where
rooftops, means hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase
wind velocity.
Disadvantages of VAWT
6. Most VAWTs have a average decreased efficiency from a common HAWT,
mainly because of the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into the
wind. Versions that reduce drag produce more energy, especially those that funnel
wind into the collector area.
7. Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower and do
not take advantage of higher wind speeds above.
Components of Wind Power Plant
Turbine Blades
1) The blade is the most distinctive and visible component of a wind
turbine.
2) It is also responsible for carrying out one of the most essential tasks
of the energy conversion process : Transforming the wind kinetic
energy into rotational mechanical energy.
3) Modern blades are commonly made of aluminum, fiberglass, or
carbon-fiber composites that provide the necessary strength-to-
weight ratio, fatigue life, and stiffness while minimizing the weight.
Rotor : The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.
Pitch : Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to control the rotor
speed and keep the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too
low produce electricity.
Brake : A disc brake, which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or
hydraulically to stop the rotor in emergencies.
Low-speed shaft : The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60
rotations per minute.
Gear box : Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft
and increase the rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per
minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the rotational speed required
by most generators to produce electricity.
Wind vane : Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw
drive to orient the turbine properly with respect to the wind.
Generator : Usually an induction generator that produces 50-cycle AC
electricity.
High-speed shaft : High speed shaft drives the generator.
Hub : The central solid portion of the rotor wheel is known as hub. All
blades are attached to the hub. Mechanism for pitch angle control is also
provided inside the hub.
Nacelle : The rotor is attached to the nacelle, mounted at the top of a
tower. It contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator,
controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to
land on. Brakes are used to stop the rotor when power generation is not
desired.
Controller : The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about
8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off the machine at about 55 mph.
Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above about 55 mph because
they might be damaged by the high winds.
Anemometer : It measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed
data to the controller.
Yaw drive : Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to
keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes.
Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive, the wind blows the rotor
downwind.
Yaw motor : Yaw motor in the turbine powers the yaw drive.
Tower : Towers are made from tubular steel , concrete, or steel lattice.
Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines
to capture more energy and generate more electricity.
 Environmental issues of wind power plant
Impact on Wildlife
Wind turbines can negatively affect local wildlife, particularly birds and bats.
• Birds: Wind turbines are known to cause bird collisions, especially for species that
fly at the height of the turbine blades. Raptors (e.g., eagles, hawks) and migratory
birds are particularly at risk. The actual impact varies depending on the turbine
location and the species in the area.
• Bats: Bats are also vulnerable, often being killed not just by direct collisions but
also by barotrauma (damage caused by rapid changes in air pressure near the
turbine blades).
• Mitigation: To minimize these impacts, developers carefully assess bird and bat
populations and migratory paths before constructing wind farms, and new
technologies (like radar detection systems) are being developed to automatically
shut down turbines when birds or bats are detected.
Habitat Disruption
Wind farms may disrupt local ecosystems, including land and marine
environments.
• Land-Based Wind Farms: The construction of wind turbines can lead
to habitat loss, fragmentation, and changes in land use. While wind
farms occupy relatively small physical footprints compared to other
energy sources, the access roads and power lines that accompany them
can disrupt natural habitats.
• Offshore Wind Farms: Offshore wind farms can impact marine life.
The construction phase can disturb seabeds, underwater habitats, and
aquatic species due to noise and physical disruption. Noise pollution,
in particular, can affect marine mammals, such as whales and
dolphins, which rely on sound for communication and navigation.
Noise Pollution
Wind turbines produce mechanical noise from their components and
aerodynamic noise as the blades move through the air. While modern
turbines are quieter than older models, noise can still be an issue for
people living near wind farms.
• Low-Frequency Noise: Some concerns focus on low-frequency noise
or "infrasound," which, although below the range of human hearing,
can potentially cause discomfort or health issues (though studies on
this are inconclusive).
• Mitigation: Proper siting and modern turbine design help reduce noise
pollution. Typically, turbines are installed at a sufficient distance from
residential areas to minimize impact.
Land Use and Soil Erosion
Wind farms require land for turbine installation, roads, and transmission
lines. While wind farms generally use less land than other energy
sources, there are still impacts:
• Agriculture: Wind turbines are often installed on farmland. Although
farmers can continue to use much of the land around the turbines, soil
erosion, and compaction from construction and maintenance vehicles
can reduce agricultural productivity.
• Soil and Water: In sensitive areas, wind farm construction can lead to
soil erosion, sedimentation of nearby water bodies, and changes in
drainage patterns.
Material and Resource Use
Although wind turbines do not generate emissions during operation, the
production and disposal of turbines raise environmental concerns.
• Materials: Wind turbines are made from steel, concrete, rare-earth
metals, and other materials. The extraction and processing of these
materials have environmental impacts, including habitat destruction
and pollution from mining.
• Energy Used in Manufacturing: The production of wind turbines,
particularly the large blades and towers, is energy-intensive and may
rely on non-renewable energy sources during the manufacturing phase.
• Recycling and Disposal: Wind turbine blades, often made of
composite materials, are difficult to recycle. As older wind farms reach
the end of their lifespan, dealing with decommissioned turbine parts,
especially blades, poses a growing waste management challenge.
Intermittency and Grid Integration
Wind energy is intermittent, meaning electricity production varies
depending on wind conditions, which can pose challenges for electricity
grid stability.
• Energy Storage: Integrating wind power into the grid requires backup
systems or energy storage solutions (e.g., batteries) to ensure a steady
supply of electricity. The development of storage technologies and
grid upgrades may lead to additional environmental and financial
costs.
Human Health Concerns
There are ongoing debates about the health impacts of living near wind
turbines, though scientific evidence remains inconclusive.
• "Wind Turbine Syndrome": Some people living near wind farms
report symptoms like headaches, sleep disturbances, and anxiety, often
termed "wind turbine syndrome." These symptoms are hypothesized to
be caused by infrasound or psychological effects (like annoyance from
noise or visual disruption), though studies have not consistently found
direct health impacts.