UNIT –II

SOLAR COLLECTORS
 UNIT-II, SYLLABUS
• Solar Energy Collection & Storage :
• Solar Energy Collection: Flat plate and concentrating
collectors, classification of concentrating collectors,
orientation and thermal analysis, advanced
collectors.
• Solar Energy Storage and Applications :
• Different methods, Sensible, latent heat and stratified
storage, solar ponds. Solar Applications solar heating
technique, solar distillation and drying, photovoltaic
energy conversion
 Solar energy
• Solar Energy is radiant or beaming light and
heat from the sun that is harnessed using a
range of ever evolving technologies such as
solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal
energy
• It is the largest source of energy received on
Earth, but its intensity on the earths
 SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTOR
• Solar energy collector is a device which absorbs
the in coming solar radiation, converts it into
heat, and transfer this heat to a fluid ( usually
air, water, or oil) flowing through the collector
• The solar energy thus collected is carried from
the circulating fluid either directly to the hot
water or space conditioning equipment, or to a
thermal energy storage tank from which can be
drawn for use at night and or cloud days
• Solar collectors are classified as low , medium or
high temperature collectors
• Low temperature collectors are used for smaller non
intensive requirements, temperature range is <150
degree C
• Medium temperature collectors are used for heating
water or air for industrial and commercial use,
temperature range is 150 degree C – 400 degree C
• High temperature collectors concentrate sunlight
using mirrors or lenses and are used for fulfilling
heating requirements up to 400 degree C and 20 bar
pressure in industries, temperature range is
>400degrees C
 Types of solar collectors
• Non Concentrating • Concentrating Collectors
Collectors • Concentrating collectors
• The Collector area is the have a larger interceptor
same as the absorber area than absorber
• The whole solar panel • Concentrating Collectors
absorbs light are used for high
• Non concentrating solar temperature requirements
collectors are generally
used for low and Medium
temperature
 Non Concentrating Technology
• Non Concentrating solar thermal collectors are
generally used for low and medium energy
requirements.
• Solar water heating used for solar water
heaters are Flat Plate collectors and Evacuated
Tube Collectors.
 Flat plate collector
• Flat Plate Collectors : Consists of a thin metal box
with insulated sides and back a glass or plastic
cover (the glazing) and a dark color absorber.
• The glazing allows most of the solar energy into
the box whilst preventing the escape of much of
the heat gained.
• The absorber plate is in the box painted a selective
dark color coating, designed to maximize the
amount of solar energy absorbed as heat.
• Running through the absorber plate are many fine
tubes, through which water is pumped
• As the water travels through these tubes, it
absorbs the heat. This heated water is then
gathered in a larger collector pipe to be
transported into the hot water system
 Introduction

• Solar Energy can be utilized directly by two ways:

1. Solar Thermal
Solar thermal systems provides thermal energy for solar various
processes.
Ex: In cold climate region, large amount of low grade thermal
energy is required to heat air for comfort and hot water for
washing cleaning and other domestic and industrial needs.

2. Solar Photovoltaic
Solar Collector:

Solar Collector is a device for collecting solar

radiation and transfer the energy through a fluid into usable
form. i.e heat or electricity.

Solar Collectors are two types:

1. Non Concentrating or Flat Plate Collectors.

2. Concentrating (focusing) type solar Collectors.

Principle of Conversion of solar Radiation into Heat:
Principle of Green House Effect:
Important features of Solar collectors:

1. Collector Efficiency: is defined as the ratio of the

actually absorbed (collected and transferred to heat) by
the collector to the energy incident on the Collector.

2. Concentration Ratio (CR): is defined as the ratio of

the area of aperture (space) of the system to the area
of the receiver. The aperture of the system is the
projected area of the collector facing the beam.

3. Temperature Range: is the range of the temperature

to which the heat transport fluid is heated up by the
collector.
 Flat Plate Collector:

1. In flat-plate collectors there is no optical concentration

of sunlight and they are generally stationary and hence
the concentration ratio is only 1 and temperature range
is less than 1000 C.

2. They are made in rectangular panels from about 1.7 to

2.9 sq.m in area and are relatively simple to construct
and erect.

3. These are collect both direct and diffuse solar radiation.

They are collect the solar radiation even in cloudy
days when there is no direct radiation.
 Flat Plate Collector:

A flat plate collector is basically a black surface that is

placed at a convenient path of the sun. And a typical flat plate
collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic cover (called
glazing) on top and a dark-colored absorber plate on the bottom.
The sides and bottom of the collector are usually insulated to
minimize heat loss.
 Flat Plate Collector:

Flat plate solar collectors may be divided in to TWO

classifications based on the type of heat transfer fluid.

1. Liquid Heating Collector: used for Heating water & non

Freezing .

2. Air or Gas heating collectors: employed as solar air heater.

 Flat Plate Collectors components:

Absorber plate:
It is usually made of copper, steel or plastic. The surface is covered
with a flat black material of high absorptance. If copper or steel is used
it is possible to apply a selective coating that maximizes the absorptance
of solar energy and minimizes the radiation emitted by plate.
Flow passages:
The flow passages conduct the working fluid through the collector. If
the working fluid is a liquid , the flow passage is usually a tube that is
attached to or is a part of absorber plate. If the working fluid is air , the
flow passage should be below the absorber plate to minimize heat
losses.
Cover plate:
To reduce convective and radiative heat losses from the absorber , one
or two transparent covers are generally placed above the absorber plate.
They usually be made from glass or plastic.
 Flat Plate Collectors components:

Insulation:

These are some materials such as fibre glass & Styro-foam and
they are placed at the back and sides of the collector to reduce heat
losses.
Enclosure (or) Casing (or) Container:

A box that the collector is enclosed in holds the components

together, protect them from weather, facilitates installation of the
collector on a roof or appropriate frame.
1. A Typical Liquid Collectors:
 1. A Typical Liquid Collectors:

A. Absorber plate & Flow passages:

Absorber plate basically consists of flat surface with high absorptivity for
solar radiation. The absorber plate is usually made from a metal sheet 1 to 2mm in
thickness.
Flow Passages (tubes) is usually made with metal with diameter of 1 to 1.5
cm. They are soldered, brazed and clamped to the bottom of the absorber plate with
the pitch ranging from 5 to 15 cm.

Heat is transferred from the absorber plate to a point of use by circulation of

fluid across the solar heated surface.
B. Cover plates:

A cover plate for a collector should have a high transmittance for solar
radiation and should not detoriate with time. The material most commonly used
is glass. A 3mm to 4 mm thick sheet of window glass transmits 85 percent of
solar energy at normal incidence and all glass is practically opaque (Not
reflecting light) to long-wavelength (Infra-red re radiation) radiation emitted by
the absorber plate.

Usually 1 or 2 covers with a specific ranging from 1.5 to 3 cm. Each plate reflects
about 15% of the incoming sunlight.

Advantages of Second glass:

1. Losses due to air convection are reduced. This is important in windy areas.
2. Radiation losses in the infrared spectrum are reduced by a further 25%.

Some plastic materials can be used for collector glazing.They are cheaper and lighter
than glass and, because they can be used in very thin sheets, they often have higher
transmittance. However, they are not as durable as glass and they often degrade
with exposure to ultraviolet radiation or high temperatures
C. Enclosure / Insulation:
There is some loss of heat to the surrounding from the top
of the cover by convection, conduction and radiation . The rate of
heat loss increases the temperature of air space rises, this affects
the overall efficiency of solar collector.

The collector enclosure is usually made from steel,

aluminium or fiber glass.And order to prevent heat from escaping
through the back of the collector, a layer of insulation is placed
behind the absorber plate.

Figure : Cross Section of an Insulation Part of a Flat-Plate Collector

Heat Transport System:
 In Simple type of flat-plate collectors, the absorber is a blackened sheet
with close corrugations (to shape into folds or parallel and alternating ridges and
grooves.) running from top to bottom. A problem with this design is that in cold
weather, moisture may condense on the inside of the transparent cover plate
and thus decrease the transmission of the solar radiation.

Water is a very effective heat transport medium, but it suffers from certain
drawbacks.
1. Possibility of freezing in the collector tubes in cold climates during cold nights.

Remedy: Ethylene glycol is added to prevent freezing, but this generally adds to
the complexity of the heating system.

2. Corrosion (rust) of the metal tubes by the water.

Remedy: Corrosion can be minimized by using copper tubing (or) aluminum

tubing.
 2. A Typical Air Collectors (or) Solar Air Heater:

• In this flat plate collector air stream is heated by the back side of the
collector plate.
•Fins attached to the plate increases contact surface.
• The back side of the collector is heavily insulated with mineral wool
or some other material.
•Air is medium for heat transport system in solar collectors.
• To decrease the power required to pump the necessary volume of air
through tubes, wider flow channels are used.
Ex: Air may be passed through a space between the absorber
plate and insulator with baffles arranged to provide a long (Zig - Zag)
flow path shown figure below.

• The use of air as the heat transport fluid eliminates both freezing
and corrosion problem, and small air leaks are leaks of less concern
than water.
• The heated air can be used directly for space heating.
Drawbacks:
• Large duct sizes and higher flow rates, with increased pumping
power are required for air than when water is the heat transport
medium.
• The transfer of heat from air to water in a hot water supply system is
inefficient.
Applications:
Solar air heaters are used
1. Drying or Curing of agriculture products.
2. Space heating for comfort.
3. Regeneration of dehumidifying agents.
4. Seasoning of timber.
5.Curing of industrial products such as plastics.
Basically air heaters are two categories:

1. Non-porous absorber: in which the air stream does not flow

through the absorber Plate. Air may flow below or behind the
absorber plate.
2. Porous absorber: in which the air stream does flow through the
absorber plate. This includes slit and expanded metal, transpired
honey comb and over lapped glass plate absorber.
 Non-porous absorber:
• A non-porous absorber may be cooled by the air stream flowing
over both sides of the plate as shown in Fig.(a).

• In most common design the air flows behind the absorbing surface.
In this the convective losses increase from cover plate and therefore is
not recommended if the air inlet temperature rise at the collector are
large, as shown in Figure (b).
• Due to low heat transfer rates of the air, the efficiencies are lower
than liquid solar radiation heater under the same radiation intensity.

• Performance of air heater is improved by:

1. Roughing the rear (back) of the plate.
2. Adding fins to increases the heat transfer surface.

A Solar collector with V-corrugated copper foil is illustrated in Fig.(c).

Collector with Porous Absorbers:

• The main drawback of the non-porous absorber plate is the necessity of absorbing all
incoming radiation over the projected area from a thin layer over the surface, which is in
order to in few microns. Unless selective coating area is used, radiative losses from the
absorber plate are excessive, therefore collector efficiency cannot be improved.

• Due to adding fins to increase the heat transfer surface and turbulence rate. The difficulty
with turbulence is the pressure drop across the collector.

• The above defects can be eliminated by using Porous type collectors in two ways.

1. The solar radiation penetrates to greater depths and is absorbed gradually depending on
the matrix density.
Any improper selection of the matrix and the thickness may result in reduced efficiencies.

2. The pressure drop for the matrix is usually lower than the non-porous absorber with flow
behind the plate since flow per unit cross-section would be much lower.
•The solar air heating utilizing a transpired honey comb [fig (b)] is also very favorable from the
pressure drop stand point since the flow cross-section is much larger.

•There is a method of using crushed glass layers to absorb solar radiation and heat the
air. A porous bed, as shown in fig 3.37(c) made by forming layers of broken bottles ,may be
readily used for agriculture drying purposes with minimal expenditure.

•The overlapped glass plate air heater as shown in fig 3.37(d) can be considered as a form
of porous matrix, although overall flow direction is along the absorber glass plates instead of
being across the matrix.
Applications of Solar Air Heater:
• Heating Buildings
•Drying agriculture produce and lumber.
•Heating Green Houses.
• Air conditioning buildings utilizing desiccant beds or a absorption refrigeration process.
•Using air heaters as the heat sources for a heat engine such as a Brayton or Stirling Cycle.

Advantages of Flat Plate Collectors:

• It uses both Beam and Diffuse solar Radiation.

•They do not required orientation towards the sun.
•They require little maintenance.
• They are mechanically simpler than the concentrating reflectors.
 Conclusion
Flat Plate Collectors are used for water heating, are
long lasting and also in long term they are cheaper
than the other water heating systems. However,
they requires large areas if high energy output.
Then solar energy is free if we do not include the
initial cost for installation and the maintenance.
Finally, besides these we should remember by using
solar energy we can protect nature.
 Introduction to Concentrating type Solar Collectors
• For applications such as air conditioning, central power generation, and numerous
industrial heat requirements, flat plate collectors generally cannot provide carrier fluids
at temperatures sufficiently elevated to be effective. They may be used as first-stage
heat input devices; the temperature of the carrier fluid is then boosted by other
conventional heating means.

• Alternatively, more complex and expensive concentrating collectors can be used.

These are devices that optically reflect and focus incident solar energy onto a small
receiving area. As a result of this concentration, the intensity of the solar energy is
magnified, and the temperatures that can be achieved at the receiver (called the
"target") can approach several hundred or even several thousand degrees Celsius. The
concentrators must move to track the sun if they are to perform effectively.
2. Concentrating Collectors:

Concentrating, or focusing, collectors intercept direct radiation

over a large area and focus it onto a small absorber area. These
collectors can provide high temperatures more efficiently than flat -
plate collectors, since the absorption surface area is much smaller.
However, diffused sky radiation cannot be focused onto the
absorber.

Most concentrating collectors require mechanical equipment that

constantly orients the collectors toward the sun and keeps the
absorber at the point of focus. Therefore; there are many types of
concentrating collectors.
 Types
• Line Focusing Collectors (or) Parabolic Trough Collectors.
• Mirror Strip Reflector.
• Fresnel lens Collector.
• Flat Plate Collector with Adjustable mirrors.
• Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC).
 Line Focusing Collectors (or) Parabolic Through Collectors:

• Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the letter “u”. The troughs
concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube that is positioned along the focal line of the
trough. Sometimes a transparent glass tube envelops the receiver tube to reduce heat
loss.
These solar collectors use mirrored parabolic troughs to focus the sun's energy to a
fluid carrying receiver tube located at the focal point of a parabolically curved trough
reflector . It is shown in the figure below.
The energy from the sun sent to the tube heats oil flowing through
the tube, and the heat energy is then used to generate electricity in
a conventional steam generator. Many troughs placed in parallel
rows are called a "collector field." The troughs in the field are all
aligned along a north south axis so they can track the sun from
east to west during the day, ensuring that the sun is continuously
focused on the receiver pipes. Individual trough systems currently
can generate about 80 MW of electricity.
2. Mirror Strip Reflector:

• This is a Line focusing collector in which a plane or Slightly Curved (concave)

mirror strips are mounted on a flat base. The individual mirrors are placed in such
angles that the reflected solar radiation can fall on to the same focal line where
the collector pipe is placed as shown in the fig.
• When changes in the sun’s elevation in viewing of focusing of the reflected
radiation on to a focal line, either collector pipe is to be moved continuously
keeping mirror strips in fixed condition, or the angle of the mirrors are allowed to
be adjusted continuously keeping the collector pipe in fixed position.
3. Fresnel lens Collector:
• This is also a line focusing type collector. In this type collector, the focusing
achieved by using Fresnel lens where reflection takes place.
•The Fresnel lens refraction type of focusing collector as shown in figure.
• The Fresnel lens is made flat on one side and other side , fine longitudinal
grooves are kept. The angles of these grooves are made in such a manner that
solar radiation can be focused on a line.
•A typical Fresnel lens which is usually used, is having overall length of about
4.7m and width of about 0.05m.
•It is usually made of extruded acrylic plastic sheets.
Receiver Pipe:
• The receiver pipe of a parabolic line focusing collector as shown in figure below .

• The Solar radiation absorber is a central steel pipe with a treated surface .
• A Hallow steel plug with in the absorber pipe restrict the flow of the heat transfer
fluid to a narrow annular region. This results in a high flow velocity of the fluid and
consequently a high rate of heat transfer from the absorber.
• The absorber pipe is usually enclosed in a glass (Pyrex) jacket in order to decrease
thermal losses by convection and radiation.
• The space between the pipe and the jacket is sometimes evacuated to reduce
convection losses.
• The diameter of the glass jacket may be about 5cm, absorber pipe about 3 cm and
annulus between the pipe and the plug may be as little as 2.5 cm wide.
• In Fresnel lens collector, the solar radiation is focused into the absorber from the top
, rather than from the bottom as in the parabolic (reflection) type.

• A modified absorber design as shown in figure below.

Point focusing Collector (Paraboloidal Type):

• The earlier mention collectors are considered under the focusing type.
• The paraboloid dish collector is of point focusing type.

• In the line focusing type, the receiver is placed at the focus, i.e. along the focal line.

• In the point focusing type the receiver is placed at the focus point of the concentrator.

•This system is made with a dish with diameter of 6.6 m and is 200 curved mirror
segments forming a Paraboloidal surface.

• The absorber is a cavity made of a Zirconium-Copper alloy.

• Black chrome is used as a selective coating.

• The dish can be turned automatically about two axis (up down & left-right) so that
the sun is always kept in a line with the focus and the base (vertex) of the Paraboloidal
dish. Thus the sun fully tracked at essentially all times.
• The concentration ratio are very high in the case of parabolic system
and therefore can be used where high temperatures are required.
• Concentration ratios of about 30 to 100 or high and temperature
ranges are 300 to 5000 C or higher.
• Collector designed is necessary for high concentration ratios and
which is broadly classified as:
The six 9 kWe dish/Stirling units (projects DISTAL I and DISTAL II) under
(Source: PSA, Spain)
Collector designed is necessary for high concentration ratios and
which is broadly classified as:
1. The linear focus collector in the form of a parabolic trough or
the ones employing faceted mirror strips.
2. Spherical and conical mirror with aberrated foci.
3. Central Receiver Collector, Such as the Paraboloidal mirror and
the tower power plant using heliostat mirrors.
Central Receiver Collector:

•A System equivalent to a very large Paraboloidal reflector consists

of a number of mirrors distributed over an area on the ground.
• Each mirror is called a heliostat can be steered independently
about two axes so that the reflected solar radiation is always directed
Towards an absorber mounted on a tower.
•This type of collector is classified as Central Receiver Collector.
•This is mostly used in tower power plants for generation of
Electrical Energy.
• In the typical Central Receiver, the mirror is composed of many small mirrors;
each with its own heliostat to follow the sun.
• The heliostats generally placed in the horizontal Plane.
• The basic difference between a single mirror concentrator and the heliostat system
is that the heliostat system has a dilute mirror. This means that the entire surface
within the system is not covered with mirror surface. This diluteness is generally
termed as the fill factor.
• A central receiver with a fill factor of 40% means that 40% of the land area is
covered by the mirror.
(4). Flat Plate collector with adjustable mirrors:
(Concentrating Collectors: Non-Focusing Type)
• It consists of a flat plate facing south with mirrors attached to its north and
south edges as shown in Figure.
• The mirrors (reflectors) are set at the proper angle they reflect solar
radiation on to the absorber plate.
• Apart from the reflected radiation, absorber plate also receives normal
radiation falling on it.
• Concentration Ratios are normally in the range of 1 to 4 and operating
temperature of 130 and 1400 C.
(4). Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC):

• CPC is a non- focusing type collector.

• The concentrators are of curved segments which are parts of two parabolic.
• Solar radiation from many directions gets reflected towards the bottom of
the trough.
• It collects both direct and diffuse radiations on a small area.
• Concentration Ratios are normally in the range of3 to 10 and operating
temperature of 100 - 1500 C.
• The operating temperature can be improved i.e.3000 C by using selectively
coated, vacuum enclosed receivers which decrease thermal losses from
collector.
CPC reflectors can be designed for any absorber shapes:
EX: (a). Flat one sided absorber.
(b). Flat two sided Absorbers.
(c). Wedge-Like Absorber
(d). Tubular Absorber.
For economic as well as for thermal reasons the fin and
the tubular type absorber is preferred.
Advantages of Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC):

• There is no need for tracking because it has high acceptance

angle, only seasonal adjustments are required.
• The efficiency for accepting diffuse radiation is much larger
than conventional concentrators.
• Its concentration ratio is equal to the maximum value possible
for a given acceptance angle.
Advantages of Concentrating Concentrator:
• CC are simpler than the flat plate collectors because of less reflected surface
material.
• Cost per unit area of the solar collecting surface is potentially less than that
for FP Collectors.
• A smaller absorber area and insulation intensity is greater than flat plate
collectors.
• Heat lost is less & Collector efficiency is more due to small absorbing area
& high vacuumed insulation.
• High temperatures occurs due to more insulation on the absorber.
• CC are used electric power generation when not used for heating or cooling.
• Operating time per year can be more than flat plate collectors.
• Initial installation cost can be regained by saving of energy in shorter period
of time.
• Heat storage costs are less than the flat plate collector.
• Little or no antifreeze is required for protect the absorber.
Disadvantages of Concentrating Concentrator:

• It collect only beam radiation.

• The costly oriented systems have to be used to track the sun

radiation

• Additional requirements of maintenance particular to retain

the quality of reflecting surface against dirt, weather, oxidation.

• Non uniform flux on the absorber where as uniform flux in FFC.

• Additional optical losses such as reflectance losses and the

intercept losses, so they introduce additional factors in energy
balances.

• High initial cost.

 Application of Solar energy
• 1. Solar cooking
• 2. Solar water heating
• 3. Solar Electricity – Thermal
• 4. Solar Electricity – Photovoltaic
• 5. Solar Drying
• 6. Solar Distillation
• SOLAR COOKING
• 1. Box Type Solar Cooker
• They use reflectors to “gather” a larger area of sunlight and direct it
towards a black cooking pot that is placed in a high temperature
oven bag. The air inside the bag that surrounds the pot is the
insulation that retains the heat. The temperature inside the pot of a
panel cooker can reach and maintain boiling
 2. Panel Type Solar Cooker
Solar panel cooker designs incorporate elements of box and
parabolic cookers. They often have a large reflector area and the
cook pot has some form of enclosure to retain heat. Panel cookers are
capable of cooking up to approximately 140 °C (284 °F).
3. Parabolic type solarcooker

Parabolic solar cookers use a parabolic-

shaped reflector to direct sunlight to a
small area in order to generate heat for
cooking. They are able to reach high
temperatures, 350 °C (662 °F) or higher,
which allows them to be used for grilling
and frying
Solar distillation