Wireless and Mobile

Communication (EC
302)
By
Dr. Raghavendra Pal
Syllabus
Syllabus
A basic Cellular System
 Cellular Concept
• The cellular concept was a major breakthrough in solving the
problem of spectral congestion and user capacity.
• The cellular concept is a system level idea which calls for
replacing a single, high power transmitter (large cell) with many
low power transmitters (small cells), each providing coverage to
only a small portion of the service area.
• Each small cell contains a transceiver that is called base station.
• Each base station is allocated a portion of the total number of
channels available to the entire system.
 Cellular Concept
• Neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of
channels so that the interference between base stations
(and the mobile users under their control) is minimized.
• By systematically spacing base stations and their channel
groups throughout a market, the available channels are
distributed throughout the geographic region and may be
reused as many times as necessary as long as the
interference between channel stations is kept below
acceptable levels.
 Frequency reuse
• The design process of selecting
and allocating channel groups for
all of the cellular base stations
within a system is called frequency
reuse.
• Figure illustrates the concept of
cellular frequency reuse, where
cells labelled with the same letter
use the same group of channels.
 Shape of a Cell
• Although the waves from transceiver make a circle if we look from the top,
we consider the cell to be in hexagonal shape due to several reasons.
• One reason is that the circles cannot be overlaid upon a map without
leaving gaps or creating overlapping regions. Due to this limitation there
are three sensible shapes: a square, an equilateral triangle or a hexagon.
• For a given distance between the center of a polygon and its farthest
perimeter points, the hexagon has the largest area of the three. Thus by
using the hexagon geometry, the fewest number of cells can cover a
geographic region thus reducing cost. Further, among the three choices,
the hexagon closely approximates a circular radiation pattern.
 Frequency reuse
• To understand the frequency reuse concept, consider a cellular system which
has a total of S duplex channels available for use. If each cell is allocated a
group of k channels (k<S), and if the S channels are divided among N cells into
unique and disjoint channel groups which each have the same number of
channels, the total number of available radio channels can be expressed as
S=kN
• The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is
called a cluster. If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total
number of duplex channels C, can be used as a measure of capacity and is given
by
C=MkN=MS
 Frequency reuse
• Large cluster size (N) indicates that the ratio between the cell
radius and the distance between co-channel cells is small.
Conversely, a small cluster size indicates that co-channel cells
are located much closer together.
• Smallest possible value of N is desirable in order to maximize
capacity over a given coverage area.
• 1/N is called the frequency reuse factor of a cellular system as
each cell within a cluster is only assigned 1/N of the total
available channels in the system.
 Frequency reuse
• Since the hexagonal geometry has exactly six equidistant neighbors
for N=7 and the lines joining the centers of any cell and each of its
neighbors are separated by multiples of 60 degrees, there are only
certain cluster sizes and cell layouts which are possible.
• The N can have the values which satisfy this equation
N =i2+ij+j2
Here, i and j are non negative integers. To find the nearest co-channel neighbors of a particular cell, one must do the
following:

1. Move i cells along any chain of hexagons and then turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j cells.
 Frequency reuse
• This geometry has i=3 and j=2 thus
N= 19
 Channel Assignment Strategies
• Fixed Channel Assignment: Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of
voice channels. Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the
unused channels in that particular cell. If all the channels in that cell are
occupied, the call is blocked and the subscriber does not receive service. In
this method, cell is allowed to borrow channels from neighboring cells.
• Dynamic Channel Assignment: Each time a call request is made, the
serving base station requests a channel from the Mobile switching center
(MSC). The switch then allocates a channel to the requested cell following
an algorithm that takes into account the likelihood of future blocking within
the cell, the frequency of use of the candidate channel, the reuse distance
of the channel, and other cost functions.
 Handoff Strategies
• When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in
progress, the MSC automatically transfers the call to a new channel
belonging to the new base station. This handoff operation not only
involves identifying a new base station, but also requires that the voice
and control signals be allocated to channels associated with the new base
station.
• Processing handoffs is an important task in any cellular radio system.
Many handoff strategies prioritize handoff requests over call initiation
requests when allocating unused channels in a cell site. Handoffs must be
performed successfully and as infrequently as possible, and be
imperceptible to users.
Handoff Strategies
• Once a particular signal
level is specified as the
minimum usable signal for
acceptable voice quality at
the base station receiver, a
slightly stronger signal level
is used as a threshold at
which a handoff is made.
• This margin is given by
Handoff Strategies
• In, , cannot be too large or too
small. If is too large,
unnecessary handoffs which
burden the MSC may occur, if
is too small, there may be
insufficient time to complete a
handoff before a call is lost due
to weak signal conditions.
 Prioritizing handoffs
• As we have discussed that the handoffs are prioritized
over new calls, one method of giving priority to handoffs
is called the guardband concept.
• In this, a fraction of total available channels is reserved
for handoff requests only. However, this method has a
disadvantage of reducing total carried traffic, as fewer
channels are allocated to originating calls.
 Practical handoff consideration
• Taking care of highly mobile
and pedestrian users at the
same time.
• Cell Dragging problem can be
solved only by adjusting the
handoff thresholds and radio
coverage parameters.
 Interference and System
Capacity
• Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of cellular
radio systems. Sources of interference include another mobile in the
same cell, a call in progress in a neighboring cell, other base stations
operating in the same frequency band, or any non cellular system
which inadvertently leaks energy into the cellular frequency band.
• Interference has been recognized as a major bottleneck in increasing
capacity and is often responsible for dropped calls.
• The two major types of system generated cellular interferences are
co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference.
 Co-Channel Interference
• Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area here are
several cells that use the same set of frequencies. These cells
are called co-channel cells and the interference between signals
from these cells is called co-channel interference.
• Unlike thermal noise, co-channel interference can not be
overcome by increasing SNR.
• To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be
physically separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient
isolation due to propagation.
 Co-Channel Interference
• When the size of each cell is approximately the same, and the
base stations transmit the same power, the co-channel
interference ratio is independent of the transmitted power and
becomes a function of the radius of the cell (R) and the distance
between centers of the nearest co-channel cells (D).
• By increasing the ratio of D/R, the spatial separation between
co-channel cells relative to the coverage distance of a cell is
increased. Thus interference is reduced from improved isolation
of RF energy from the co-channel cell.
• .
 Co-Channel Interference
• The parameter Q, called the co-channel reuse ratio, is
related to the cluster size. For a hexagonal geometry,

• A small value of Q provides larger capacity since the

cluster size N is small, whereas a large value of Q
improves the transmission quality, due to a smaller level of
co-channel interference. A tradeoff must be made between
these two objectives in actual cellular design.
 Co-Channel Interference
• Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells,. Then
the signal to interference ratio (S/I) for a mobile receiver
which monitors a forward channel can be expressed as

Here, S is the desired signal power from the desired base

station and Ii is the interference power caused by the ith
interfering co-channel cell base station. If the signal levels
of co-channel cells are known, then the S/I ratio for the
forward link can be found using the above equation.
 Co-Channel Interference
• When the transmission power of each base station is equal
and the path loss exponent is the same throughout the
coverage area, S/I for a mobile can be approximated as
Here, n is the path loss exponent
• Considering only the first layer of interfering cells, if all the
interfering base stations are equidistant from the desired
base station and if this distance is equal to the distance D
between cell centers, then the above equation simplifies to
 Co-channel interference in Worst
case scenario
In this figure, it can be seen for a 7-cell cluster,
with the mobile unit is at the cell boundary, the
mobile is a distance D-R from the two nearest co-
channel interfering cells and approximately
D+R/2, D, D-R/2 and D+R from the other
interfering cells in the first tier. Using the previous
equations and assuming n equals 4, the signal to
interference ratio for the worst case can be closely
approximated as

This equation can be written in terms of the co-channel

reuse ratio Q,
 Adjacent Channel Interference
• Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to the
desired signal is called adjacent channel interference. It results from
imperfect transmitter or receiver filters which allow nearby frequencies to
leak into the passband. The problem can be particularly serious if an adjacent
channel user is transmitting in very close range to a subscriber’s receiver.
• If frequency reuse factor is small, the separation between adjacent channels
may not be sufficient to keep the adjacent channel interference level within
tolerable limits. For example, if a mobile is 20 times as close to the base
station as another mobile and has energy spill out of its passband, the SNR
for the weak mobile (before receiver filtering) is approximately
 Trunking and Grade of service
• Cellular radio system rely on trunking to accommodate a
large number of users in a limited radio spectrum. The
concept of trunking allows a large number of users to
share the relatively small number of channels in a cell by
providing access to each user, on demand, from a pool of
available channels. In a trunked radio system, each user is
allocated a channel on a per call basis, and upon
termination of the call, the channel is immediately
returned to the pool of available channels.
 Grade of Service
• The grade of Service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a user
to access a trunked system during the busiest hour. The busy
hour is based upon customer demand at the busiest hour during
a week, month, or year. The busy hours for cellular radio
systems typically occur during rush hours, between 4 PM and 6
PM on a Thursday or Friday evening. The grade of service is a
benchmark used to define the desired performance of a
particular trunked system by specifying a desired likelihood of a
user obtaining channel access given a specific number of
channels available in the system.
 Terms used in Trunking
• Set up time: The time required to allocate a trunked radio channel to
a requesting user.
• Blocked call: Call which cannot be completed at time of request, due
to congestion. Also referred to as a lost call.
• Holding time: Average duration of a typical call. Denoted by H (in
seconds).
• Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization, which is the
average channel occupancy measured in Erlangs. This is a
dimensionless quantity and may be used to measure the time
utilization of single or multiple channels. Denoted by A.
 Terms used in Trunking
• Load: Traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio
system, measured in erlangs.
• Grade of Service (GOS): A measure of congestion which
is specified as the probability of a call being blocked (for
Erlang B), or the probability of a call being delayed
beyond a certain amount of time (for Erlang C).
• Request Rate: The number of call requests per unit time.
Denoted by λ per second.
 Calculation of Probability of
Blocking
• The traffic intensity offered by each user is equal to the call
request rate multiplied by the holding time. That is, each
user generates a traffic intensity of Au Erlangs given by
λH
Here, H is the average duration of a call and λ is the average
number of call requests per unit time. For a system
containing U users and an unspecified number of channels,
the total offered traffic intensity A, is given as
 Calculation of Probability of
Blocking
• Further, in a C channel trunked system, if the traffic is equally
distributed among the channels, then the traffic intensity per
channel, Ac is given as

Note that the offered traffic is not necessarily the traffic which is
carried by the trunked system, only that which is offered to the
trunked system, the carried traffic becomes limited due to the
limited capacity (i.e. limited number of channels). The maximum
possible carried traffic is the total number of channels, C, in Erlangs.
 Calculation of Probability of
Blocking
• There are two types of trunked systems which are commonly used.
The first type offers no queuing for call requests. That is, for every
user who requests service, it is assumed there is no setup time and
the user is given immediate access to a channel if one is available. If
no channels are available, the requesting user is blocked without
access and is free to try again later. This type of trunking is called
blocked calls cleared.
• The Erlang B formula determines the probability that a call is blocked
and is a measure of the where
GOS C foris athe
trunked
numbersystem which
of trunked provides
channels no
offered
by a trunked radio system and A is the total
queuing for blocked calls.
offered traffic.
 Calculation of Probability of
Blocking
• The second kind of trunked system is one in which a queue is provided to
hold calls which are blocked. If a channel is not available immediately, the
call request may be delayed until a channel becomes available. This type of
trunking is called Blocked Calls Delayed, and its measure of GOS is defined
as the probability that a call is blocked after waiting a specific length of time
in the queue. To find the GOS, it is first necessary to find the likelihood that
a call is initially denied access to the system. The likelihood of a call not
having immediate access to a channel is determined by the Erlang C
formula
 Calculation of Probability of
Blocking
• If no channels are immediately available, the call is delayed, and the
probability that the delayed call is forced to wait more than t seconds is
given by the probability that a call is delayed, multiplied by the conditional
probability that the delay is greater than t seconds. The GOS of a trunked
system where blocked calls are delayed is hence given by

The average delay D for all calls in a queued system is given by

where the average delay for those calls which are queued is given by H/(C—A).
 Improving Capacity In Cellular
Systems
• As the demand for wireless service increases, the number
of channels assigned to a cell eventually becomes
insufficient to support the required number of users. At
this point, cellular design techniques are needed to
provide more channels per unit coverage area. Techniques
such as cell splitting, sectoring, and coverage zone
approaches are used in practice to expand the capacity of
cellular systems.
 Cell Splitting
• Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a
congested cell into smaller cells, each with its
own base station and a corresponding
reduction in antenna height and transmitter
power. Cell splitting increases the capacity of
a cellular system since it increases the
number of times that channels are reused. By
defining new cells which have a smaller radius
than the original cells and by installing these
smaller cells (called microcells) between the
existing cells, capacity increases due to the
additional number of channels per unit area.
 Cell Splitting
• For the new cells to be smaller in size,
the transmit power of these cells must
be reduced. The transmit power of the
new cells with radius half that of the
original cells can be found by examining
the received power at the new and old
cell boundaries and setting them equal
to each other. This is necessary to
ensure that the frequency reuse plan for
the new microcells behaves exactly as
for the original cells.
 Cell Splitting
• For this scenario,
• Pr [at old cell boundary] α Pt1 R-n

• Pr [at old cell boundary] α Pt2 (R/2)-n

• Where Pt1 and Pt2 are the transmit powers of the

larger and smaller cell base stations, respectively,
and n is the path loss exponent. If we take n = 4 and
set the received powers equal to each other, then
• Pt2 = Pt1 /16

• In other words, the transmit power must be reduced

by 12 dB in order to fill in the original coverage area
with microcells, while maintaining the S/I
requirement.
 Cell Sectoring
• Cell splitting achieves capacity improvement by essentially rescaling the system. By
decreasing the cell radius R and keeping the co-channel reuse ratio D/R unchanged, cell
splitting increases the number of' channels per unit area. However, another way to
increase capacity is to keep the cell radius unchanged and seek methods to decrease
the D/R ratio. In this approach, capacity improvement is achieved by reducing the
number of cells in a cluster and thus increasing the frequency reuse. However, in order
to do this, it is necessary to reduce the relative interference without decreasing the
transmit power.
• The co-channel interference in a cellular system may be decreased by replacing a
single omni-directional antenna at the base station by several directional antennas,
each radiating within a specified sector. By using directional antennas, a given cell will
receive interference and transmit with only a fraction of the available co-channel cells.
 Cell Sectoring
• The technique for decreasing co-channel
interference and thus increasing system
capacity by using directional antennas is
called sectoring. The factor by which the
co-channel interference is reduced
depends on the amount of sectoring used.
A cell is normally partitioned into three
120o sectors or six 60° sectors.
Cell Sectoring
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI)
formed in 1988
• First Global System for Mobiles (GSM) System was introduced in
1991
• Still in use in many countries
• It uses FDMA/TDMA for channel access
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• Popular Frequency bands are
• 900 MHz band
• 890-915 MHz (Uplink)
• 935-960 MHz (Downlink)
• 1800 MHz band
• 1710-1785 MHz (Uplink)
• 1805-1880 MHz (Downlink)
• 1900 MHz band
• 1850-1910 MHz (Uplink)
• 1930-1990 MHz (Downlink)
Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• Base station Subsystem (BSS) consists of
• One base station controller (BSC)
• One or more base transceiver stations (BTSs or BSs)
• A Radio Access Network (RAN) contains one or more BSSs
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• Base Transceiver Station (BTS) contains
• Radio transceiver to connect with MS
• User voice encryption
• It uses GMSK (A type of Frequency Shift Keying)
• It Pages MS for a call
• It receives MS measurement reports and passes it to BSC
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• Base Station Controller (BSC) Controls one or more BTS.
• It switches traffic and signaling to/from BTSs and MSC.
• It uses Radio Resource Management for BSS
• It assigns channels on Air and Abis Interface
• Use received measurement report to
• Control MS handover
• Power control for BTS and MS
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• Network Subsystem (NSS) consists of MSC and Associated databases
• It performs all the call switching and routing
• It Tracks the location of the mobile
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• Network Subsystem (NSS) consists of MSC and Associated databases
(EIR, VLR, HLR and AUC)
• It performs all the call switching and routing
• It Tracks the location of the mobile
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• Mobile Switching Center performs Call setup, Call routing between MS &
other MSCs/external network, Inter BSS and Inter MSC handovers
• It assigns channel on A interface as well.
• Gateway MSC handles interface with other PLMNs/GMSC
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• Home Location Register (HLR) contains the
following information
• Subscriber ID
• Authentication key
• Subscriber status (registered/unregistered)
• Services a subscriber can use
• Current location of subscriber (which VLR area)
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• Authentication Register (AUC) is normally built as a
part of HLR.
• It uses authentication key to generate parameters
for
• User authentication/verification
• Generation of ciphering key
• Required when user initiates connection
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• Visiter Location Register (VLR)
• A PLMN service area is divided into MSC areas
• A VLR may serve more than one MSCs
• However, normally one VLR is associated with
one MSC
• Holds temporary data to avoid overburdening of
HLR
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• Equipment Identity Register (EIR) contains 3 lists
• White list: Contains all approved types of mobile
equipment (type approval codes)
• Black list: contains all mobile equipment to be
barred (complete IMEI)
• Gray list: Contains all mobile equipment to be
traced (complete IMEI)
 Global System for Mobile
Communication(GSM)
• Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC) has
monitoring and performance supervision task.
• Fault report and alarm handling
• Configuration of network
• Stores data for minimum one year.
Note

In CDMA, one channel carries all transmissions simultaneously.

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Figure 12.23 Simple idea of communication with code

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Figure 12.24 Chip sequences

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Figure 12.25 Data representation in CDMA

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Figure 12.26 Sharing channel in CDMA

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Figure 12.27 Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA

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Figure 12.28 Decoding of the composite signal for one in CDMA

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Figure 12.29 General rule and examples of creating Walsh tables

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Note

m
The number of sequences in a Walsh table needs to be N = 2 .

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 Example 12.6

Find the chips for a network with

a. Two stations b. Four stations

Solution

We can use the rows of W2 and W4 in Figure 12.29:

a. For a two-station network, we have

[+1 +1] and [+1 −1].

b. For a four-station network we have

[+1 +1 +1 +1], [+1 −1 +1 −1],

[+1 +1 −1 −1], and [+1 −1 −1 +1].

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 Example 12.7

What is the number of sequences if we have 90 stations in our network?

Solution
m 7
The number of sequences needs to be 2 . We need to choose m = 7 and N = 2 or 128. We can then

use 90

of the sequences as the chips.

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 Example 12.8

Prove that a receiving station can get the data sent by a specific sender if it multiplies the entire

data on the channel by the sender’s chip code and then divides it by the number of stations.

Solution

Let us prove this for the first station, using our previous four-station example. We can say that the

data on the channel

D = (d1 ⋅ c1 + d2 ⋅ c2 + d3 ⋅ c3 + d4 ⋅ c4).

The receiver which wants to get the data sent by station 1 multiplies these data by c1.

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 Example 12.8 (continued)

When we divide the result by N, we get d1 .

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 GSM Channel Types
• Physical Channels
• The ones we have
discussed so far
• Logical Channels
• These channels are
for the transmission
of a certain type of
information
 GSM Logical Channels
• Traffic Channels
• Used to carry voice or data
• These are bidirectional channels
• Control Channels
• Used for signaling between MS and BTS
• Critical for network operation
• MS registration
• Handover
• Call generation
• Call maintenance
Important control channels: Broadcast
Channels
• Broadcast control channel (BCCH)
• Network and cell identity
• Information required to connect to the network
• When you power on a MS, it receives the most powerful
signal on BCCH
• Frequency correction channel (FCCH)
• Fine frequency synchronization
• Synchronization Channel (SCH)
• Frame synchronization (Frame number)
 Example of the use of Broadcast channel:
A Person Travelling to a New City

• Step 1: Powering On the Mobile Station: Alice travels from her

hometown to a new city. Upon arrival, she turns on her mobile phone
(the MS). The phone immediately starts the process of searching for
GSM signals within its operating bands (e.g., 900 MHz or 1800 MHz,
depending on the region and the phone's capabilities).
• Step 2: Scanning the GSM Frequency Bands: The MS scans the
predefined frequency bands to detect the signal from the surrounding
base transceiver stations (BTSs). This scanning involves checking the
Broadcast Control Channels (BCCHs) frequencies, which are part of
the downlink frequency band in GSM. The MS uses a list of frequencies
known as the "BA (Broadcasting ARFCNs) list" stored in its memory or
starts with the most common frequencies if no list is available or if it's
the first time the device is being used in the area.
Scenario: A Person Travelling to a New City

• Step 3: Measuring Signal Strength: Once the MS detects signals on

the BCCH frequencies, it measures the signal strength (Received
Signal Strength Indicator, RSSI) of these signals to determine the
strongest signal available. This is crucial for ensuring that the phone
connects to the BTS with the best signal quality, optimizing the
connection's reliability and performance.
• Step 4: Synchronizing with the Base Station: After identifying the
strongest signal, the MS synchronizes with that BTS by aligning itself
to the frequency correction channel (FCCH) and then to the
synchronization channel (SCH). The SCH provides the MS with the
necessary timing information and the Base Station Identity Code
(BSIC), which helps in distinguishing between base stations operating
on the same frequency in different areas.
Scenario: A Person Travelling to a New City

• Step 5: Reading the BCCH Information: With synchronization

achieved, the MS reads the information broadcasted on the BCCH. This
information includes the cell identity (CI), Location Area Identity (LAI),
list of neighboring cells (to assist with handovers), access permissions,
and other network parameters. This information allows the MS to
register with the network, understand the cell's characteristics it is in,
and prepare for any handovers that might be necessary as it moves.
• Step 6: Selecting the Cell and Registering: Based on the
information received from the BCCH and the signal quality, the MS
selects the best cell to connect to. It then performs a location update
process, registering its presence with the network in this new location.
The network updates its database with the MS's location, facilitating
incoming calls and messages.
 Important control channels
• Common Control Channels
• Paging Channel (PCH)
• Random access channel (RACH)
• Access grant channel (AGCH)
• Standalone Dedicated control Channel
(This is not a common control channel)
• Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
Example of the use of Common Control channels:
A Person Travelling to a New City

• In GSM, Common Control Channels (CCCH) play a vital role in

managing the communication between the mobile stations (MS) and
the network, especially for call setup, call request, and paging. These
channels are crucial for the efficient functioning of the GSM network,
facilitating various network operations without the need for a
dedicated channel for each mobile station. The Common Control
Channels include:
• Random Access Channel (RACH): Used by mobile stations to
initiate communication with the network. The RACH is an uplink
channel that mobile stations use to request access to the network, for
example, to start a call or send an SMS.
• Real-life Example: When Alice tries to make a call from her mobile
phone, her phone sends an access burst on the RACH to the network,
signaling its intention to initiate a call.
 Important control channels
• Paging Channel (PCH): Used by the network to alert mobile stations
of incoming calls or SMS. The PCH is a downlink channel that carries
notifications from the network to the mobile stations.
• Real-life Example: If Bob receives a call while his mobile phone is in idle
mode, the network sends a paging message on the PCH. Bob's phone
monitors the PCH and responds to the paging, allowing the call to be set
up.
• Access Grant Channel (AGCH): Used by the network to grant
access to a mobile station requesting service via the RACH. The
AGCH is a downlink channel that provides the mobile station with
information on how to proceed with the communication, typically
assigning a dedicated channel for the call or SMS.
• Real-life Example: After Alice's mobile phone sends a request on the
RACH to initiate a call, the network responds by sending an access grant
on the AGCH, instructing her phone to switch to a specific dedicated
 Important control channels
• Immediate Assignment Channel (IMM ASS): This channel is
used to immediately assign dedicated resources or channels to a
mobile station for a call or SMS. It's technically part of the
process involving the AGCH.
• Real-life Example: This step is integrated with the AGCH
example. When Alice receives the access grant on the AGCH,
the message essentially is an immediate assignment telling her
mobile phone which dedicated channel to use for the call.
 Important control channels
Alice is in a shopping mall and decides to call Bob to join her. Meanwhile, Bob's
phone is idle, not actively engaged in a call or data session.
• Alice Initiates the Call (RACH): Alice dials Bob's number, and her phone sends a
request to the network via the RACH to establish a call connection.
• Network Processes the Request (AGCH): The network receives Alice's request and
selects an available channel for the call. It then sends back an access grant message to
Alice's phone via the AGCH, informing her phone about the dedicated channel assigned
for the call.
• Bob is Paged (PCH): Since Bob's phone is in idle mode, the network needs to alert him
of the incoming call. It sends a paging message to Bob's phone via the PCH. Bob's phone
is regularly listening to the PCH for such notifications.
• Bob's Phone Responds (RACH): Upon receiving the paging notification, Bob's phone
requests to set up the call by sending a message back to the network via the RACH,
indicating it's ready to receive the call.
• Call Setup (AGCH/IMM ASS): The network then sends an immediate assignment
message to Bob's phone via the AGCH, informing it of the dedicated channel to switch to
for the call. Once both phones are informed of their respective channels, the call is
established, allowing Alice and Bob to communicate.
 SDCCH and SACCH
• Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH): The SDCCH is
used for call setup, SMS services, and other signaling tasks that don't
require a full traffic channel (TCH). It's a dedicated channel that
allows the MS and the network to exchange information necessary for
call establishment, location updating, and SMS transmission without
engaging in voice or data transmission.
• Real-life Example: Alice is walking through a park and decides
to send an SMS to Bob. When she sends the message, her mobile
phone communicates with the network using an SDCCH. This
channel is used to set up the SMS service, ensuring the message
is routed correctly through the network to reach Bob. The SDCCH
allows for the necessary signaling between Alice's phone and the
network to complete this process efficiently without needing a full
voice channel, as no voice data needs to be transmitted.
 SDCCH and SACCH
• Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH): The SACCH is used for
transmitting control information between the MS and the network during a
call or data session. This includes power control, timing advance instructions,
and handover commands. The SACCH is associated with either a TCH or
SDCCH, providing a continuous link for control messages throughout the
duration of a call or data session.
• Real-life Example: After Alice's SMS is sent, she decides to call Bob to
discuss their plans. Once the call is established over a Traffic Channel (TCH),
the SACCH continuously exchanges information between her phone and the
network to maintain call quality. For instance, as Alice moves through the
park, the SACCH might carry instructions for her phone to adjust its power
level to ensure clear communication or provide timing advance adjustments
to keep the call in sync. If Alice moves from one cell to another, handover
commands are also sent over the SACCH to switch her call to a new cell's
base station seamlessly.
 PSTN and PLMN
• PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network): The Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) is the global network of interconnected voice-
oriented public telephone networks, both commercial and government-owned.
It's traditionally been built on the circuit-switched telephony system used for
placing voice calls. The PSTN encompasses the world's circuit-switched
telephone networks that are operated by national, regional, or local telephony
operators, providing infrastructure and services for public
telecommunication. The network consists of telephone lines, fiber optic
cables, microwave transmission links, cellular networks, satellites, and
undersea telephone cables, all interconnected by switching centers, allowing
any telephone in the world to communicate with any other.
 PSTN and PLMN
• Operation: Historically, the PSTN operated on an analog signal system but has largely
transitioned to digital technology. It uses a combination of fixed-line telephones, fiber
optic cables, switching centers, and is governed by technical standards and commercial
agreements. The PSTN enables users to make landline telephone calls to each other.
Calls are routed through a network of switches and lines on a circuit-switched basis,
maintaining a dedicated circuit for the duration of the call.
• Key Features:
• Universal Service: One of its core principles is providing universal service, allowing
anyone to connect to the network and communicate with any other network user.
• Reliability: Highly reliable with built-in redundancies, ensuring consistent service
availability.
• Quality of Service (QoS): High-quality voice transmission with minimal latency and
jitter.
 PSTN and PLMN
• PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network): A Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) is any
wireless communications system intended for use by terrestrial subscribers in vehicles or
on foot. This term is used in contrast to PSTN, which is designed for fixed locations and
primarily for voice services. PLMNs support mobile communications, including voice, data,
and multimedia services, across an array of mobile networks, such as GSM, UMTS
(Universal Mobile Telecommunications System), LTE (Long Term Evolution), and 5G
networks.
• Operation: PLMNs provide mobile services by allocating a range of cellular frequencies to
mobile devices. These networks are composed of cell sites equipped with transmitters and
receivers (base stations) to facilitate wireless communication. Mobile devices connect to
these networks via SIM cards, which contain subscriber information and network access
configurations. PLMNs support roaming services, allowing users to move seamlessly
between different network areas or even between countries while maintaining connectivity.
 PSTN and PLMN
• Key Features:
• Mobility: Supports seamless handover and roaming across different network cells and regions, enabling
users to remain connected while on the move.
• Wide Range of Services: Besides voice, PLMNs support SMS, MMS, and high-speed internet services,
catering to a wide range of communication needs.
• Scalability: Designed to support a vast number of users with the capability to expand and upgrade as
technology advances and demand increases
• Comparison:
• While the PSTN and PLMN both serve as foundational infrastructures for global communications, their
primary distinction lies in their mode of service delivery. PSTN is oriented towards providing fixed-line
telephony services, characterized by its circuit-switched nature and traditionally analog technology,
though now largely digital. PLMN, on the other hand, is designed to support mobile communication,
offering a variety of services over digital and packet-switched technology, catering to users on the move.
• In essence, PSTN and PLMN represent two pillars of the telecommunications infrastructure, with PSTN
focusing on fixed-line services and PLMN on mobile and wireless services, together enabling a
comprehensive range of communication capabilities across the globe..
Outgoing Call Flow in GSM
 Outgoing Call Flow in GSM
1. Call Initiation: Alice decides to call Bob. She dials his number, and her mobile phone (MS) sends a call
setup request to the nearest BTS.
2. Channel Request and Authentication: The MS requests a channel for call setup via the Random
Access Channel (RACH). The request is forwarded to the BSC and then to the MSC, which involves the
AUC for authentication. The AUC provides an authentication token and encryption key to ensure secure
communication.
3. Equipment Validation: Simultaneously, the MS's IMEI is checked against the EIR to ensure the device
is not reported stolen or blacklisted. This step is crucial for network security and fraud prevention.
4. Channel Assignment: The BSC assigns a Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH) for further
communication between the MS and the network, facilitating the exchange of signaling information for
call setup.
5. Call Setup Information Exchange: Detailed call setup information, including the dialed number, is
sent from the MS to the MSC via the SDCCH. This step includes signaling for service request and
initiation of the call process.
 Outgoing Call Flow in GSM
5. VLR and HLR Lookup: The MSC consults the VLR for Alice's subscription information. If
Bob is a subscriber of the same network, the MSC queries the HLR for Bob's current
location and service profile.
6. Routing the Call: Depending on Bob's location, the call is routed:
1. Within the GSM network, the MSC connects to Bob's serving MSC/VLR.
2. If Bob is outside the GSM network, the call is routed through the GMSC to the
appropriate external network.
7. Alerting and Answer: Bob's phone rings. Once he answers, the network allocates Traffic
Channels (TCH) for the voice communication, establishing a clear path for the call.
8. Call Connection: Alice and Bob are now connected, with the SACCH supporting ongoing
call management, including signal strength adjustments and handover commands if
needed.
 International Mobile Equipment
Identity
• The International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) is a unique identifier given to every
single mobile phone, typically found behind the battery and on the phone's packaging. Most
phones will display the IMEI if you dial *#06#.
• Purpose of IMEI
• Unique Identification: Every mobile phone or cellular tablet is assigned a unique IMEI
number when it is manufactured. It allows each device to be uniquely identified by a string of
15 digits.
• Theft Prevention: If a mobile device is stolen, the owner can contact their service provider
and ask them to blacklist the phone using its IMEI number. This makes the phone unusable on
that provider's network, and sometimes other networks too, even if the thief changes the SIM
card.
• Legal Tracking: In the case of criminal investigations, law enforcement agencies may use the
IMEI number to track the location of a device, but only under strict legal protocols.
 International Mobile Equipment
Identity
• Mobile phones showing two IMEI numbers indicate that the device is
capable of using two SIM cards at the same time, commonly referred
to as a "dual-SIM" phone. Each SIM slot has a unique IMEI number to
properly identify each line of service.
• Structure of IMEI
• TAC (Type Allocation Code): The first 8 digits of the IMEI that provide
information about where the phone was manufactured and its model type.
• Serial Number: The following 6 digits are the device's unique serial number.
• Check Digit: The last digit is a check digit used to verify that the IMEI meets a
certain standard of approval.
 International Mobile Subscriber
Identity
• The International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) is a unique number
associated with all cellular networks. It is used for identifying the user
of a cellular network and is a key part of mobile phone technology.
• Purpose of IMSI
• Identification: It's used by the network to identify users uniquely and manage
their subscriptions.
• Security: It plays a role in securing phone communications. The IMSI is often
used to authenticate a subscriber's identity.
• Roaming: When a user travels, the IMSI helps in the international roaming
process by allowing networks to recognize the user's home service and apply the
correct billing and service policies.
 International Mobile Subscriber
Identity
• Structure of IMSI
• Mobile Country Code (MCC): The first 3 digits indicate the country of origin of the subscriber.
• Mobile Network Code (MNC): The next 2-3 digits identify the home mobile network.
• Mobile Subscription Identification Number (MSIN): The remaining digits, which are unique
to the subscriber within the mobile network.
• Example:
• Consider the IMSI: 404021234567890
• 404 is the MCC for India.
• 02 is the MNC which could represent a specific mobile network operator within India, such as
Bharti Airtel in Punjab.
• 1234567890 is the MSIN, which is the unique number given to the individual subscriber within
that network operator's customer base.
International Mobile Subscriber
Identity
• Finding the IMSI
• Unlike the IMEI number, the IMSI is usually not accessible
directly from the phone settings or by dialing a code.
• It is stored on the SIM card and is transmitted to the network
upon request.
• IMSI in Everyday Use
• The IMSI is mostly used by the network and rarely by the user. For
example, when a call or text is made, the network uses the IMSI to
identify the sender.
 Temporary Mobile Subscriber
Identity
• The Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) is a temporary
identifier used in cellular networks to maintain the privacy of the
user's IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity).
• Understanding TMSI:
• Purpose of TMSI: The TMSI is used instead of the IMSI to ensure that the
user's identity is not transmitted across the air interface frequently, thus
preventing eavesdroppers from tracking the subscriber's identity.
• Assignment of TMSI: It is assigned by the network upon the mobile device's
initial registration and is periodically changed to prevent tracking.
• Use in Communication: When a mobile device communicates with the
network, it uses the TMSI for most operations, reducing the need to send the
IMSI, which is a permanent and potentially traceable identifier.
 Temporary Mobile Subscriber
Identity
• How TMSI Works:
• When a mobile device first registers with a network, it provides its
IMSI.
• The network then assigns a TMSI and stores it along with the
IMSI in a secure database.
• All subsequent communications use the TMSI, and the network
references its database to link the TMSI back to the IMSI for
billing and service provision.
• The TMSI is only sent over the air when necessary, and it is
encrypted to protect against interception.
 Mobile Station International Subscriber
Directory Number (MSISDN)
• Definition: MSISDN is the number that a user dials to call another user within the
mobile phone network. It's the globally unique number that identifies a mobile
subscriber.
• Composition: The MSISDN follows the international numbering plan (ITU-T E.164),
which can have up to 15 digits and includes:
• Country Code (CC): The first part of the MSISDN, which identifies the country the phone number
is associated with. For example, '1' for the USA and Canada, '44' for the UK, '91' for India.
• National Destination Code (NDC) or Network Code: The next part, which identifies the mobile
operator within that country. Its length varies by country and operator.
• Subscriber Number (SN): The final part, which is the unique number assigned to each subscriber
by their mobile operator.
• Functionality: Unlike IMSI, which is stored on the SIM and used by the network to
identify the subscriber, MSISDN is used for routing calls and messages to and from
the mobile phone.
Mobile Station International Subscriber
Directory Number (MSISDN)
• Suppose we have an MSISDN of +919876543210. It has the
following components:
• Country Code (CC): +91 is the country code for India. This part of the
MSISDN specifies which country's telephone network the subscriber
belongs to.
• National Destination Code (NDC) or Network Code: 987 in this
case, which identifies the mobile operator within India to which the
subscriber belongs. Each operator has one or more unique NDCs.
• Subscriber Number (SN): 6543210 is the unique number assigned to
the subscriber by the mobile operator. This number is unique within the
operator's network and, in combination with the NDC, unique nationally.
 MSC Service Area and Location
Area
• MSC Service Area
• Description: The Mobile Switching Center (MSC) Service Area
encompasses the geographic region covered by a specific MSC in a
cellular network. An MSC is responsible for handling voice calls, SMS
services, and other telecommunications functions for mobile devices
within its service area.
• Functionality: The MSC connects calls by setting up the path for each
call based on the destination. The service area of an MSC is divided into
several smaller regions, each served by one or more Base Station
Controllers (BSCs), which in turn manage multiple Base Transceiver
Stations (BTSs) or cell sites.
 MSC Service Area and Location
Area
• Location Area (LA)
• Description: A Location Area is a subdivision of an MSC Service Area. It
is a set of cell sites (BTSs) that group together to form a larger area
within which a mobile device can move without needing to perform
location updates every time it changes cells.
• Functionality: When a mobile device moves from one location area to
another, it performs a location update procedure, informing the network
of its new location. This process helps the network in efficiently
managing and routing calls and messages to the mobile device. Thus the
size of an LA is selected in such a way so that paging load is distributed
evenly throughout the network.
 MSC Service Area and Location
Area
• Location Area Identifier (LAI) : The LAI is a unique number
assigned to each Location Area within the network. It is used to
identify the Location Area that a mobile device is currently in.
• The LAI is composed of three parts:
• Mobile Country Code (MCC): Identifies the country of the network.
• Mobile Network Code (MNC): Identifies the mobile network within
that country.
• Location Area Code (LAC): A unique number within the network
operator's domain that identifies the Location Area.
 MSC Service Area and Location
Area
• Example LAI : 404-45-12345
• Breaking down this LAI:
• Mobile Country Code (MCC) - 404: This indicates the country, India. The
MCC for India can be either 404 or 405, depending on the network and region.
• Mobile Network Code (MNC) - 45: This part identifies a specific mobile
network within India. Each network operator has one or more MNCs assigned
to it. For our example, "45" is a hypothetical MNC that could represent a
particular mobile network operator in India.
• Location Area Code (LAC) - 12345: This is a code used within the network
operator's system to identify a specific location area. The LAC helps the
network manage resources and routing within a region. "12345" is a
hypothetical LAC chosen for this example.
Base Station Identification Code
(BSIC)
• The BSIC is a code used in GSM networks to uniquely identify
each base station (BTS) within a local area. It helps in
preventing interference and in the handover process between
cells that are close to each other but belong to different network
operators or the same operator using the same frequencies.
• The BSIC is composed of two parts:
• Network Colour Code (NCC): A 3-bit code (ranging from 0 to 7) that
identifies the mobile network operator. This allows the mobile device to
distinguish between signals from different operators.
• Base Station Colour Code (BCC): A 3-bit code (also ranging from 0 to
7) that uniquely identifies the base station within the operator's network.
Base Station Identification Code
(BSIC)
• The BSIC is broadcasted by each BTS and is used by
mobile phones to identify the correct cell during the
handover process, especially when cells from different
operators are using the same or adjacent frequencies. It
helps in minimizing co-channel and adjacent channel
interference.
• BSIC is not unique in the network but it is unique within a
group of base stations.
 General Packet Radio Service
(GPRS or 2.5G)
• GSM (2G) • GPRS (2.5G)
• Nature of Service: GSM is primarily a circuit- • Nature of Service: GPRS introduces packet-
switched network, designed for voice calls and switched data services to the GSM network,
SMS. Data services in GSM are provided through allowing for more efficient data transmission. This
circuit-switched data channels, which are enables mobile internet services, multimedia
inefficient for intermittent and bursty data traffic. messaging (MMS), and other data-centric
• Data Speed: The data rates in GSM are limited, applications.
typically up to 9.6 Kbps or 14.4 Kbps, which are • Data Speed: GPRS offers higher data rates
suitable for basic data services like SMS and low- compared to traditional GSM data services, typically
speed internet access. between 56 to 114 Kbps. This improvement is due to
• Technology Focus: The focus of GSM is on the packet-switched nature of GPRS, allowing
providing reliable voice communication and basic multiple users to share the same data channel.
data services with global roaming capabilities. • Technology Focus: The focus of GPRS is on
• Spectrum Efficiency: GSM uses the spectrum enhancing the data capabilities of the GSM network,
less efficiently for data services because each paving the way for mobile internet and advanced
data connection requires a dedicated circuit, data services.
regardless of whether data is being transmitted • Spectrum Efficiency: GPRS improves spectrum
continuously. efficiency by using packet switching, where the data
channels are shared among users based on demand,
rather than dedicating a single channel to each user.
 General Packet Radio Service
(GPRS or 2.5G)
Feature GSM (2G) GPRS (2.5G)
Introduces packet-
Primarily circuit-
switched data services,
Nature of Service switched, focusing on
enhancing data
voice calls and SMS.
transmission efficiency.
Between 56 to 114 Kbps,
Up to 9.6 Kbps or 14.4
Data Speed significantly higher than
Kbps for data services.
GSM.
Focused on providing Aimed at improving data
reliable voice capabilities for mobile
Technology Focus
communication and basic internet and advanced
data services. data services.
More efficient due to
Less efficient, as each packet switching,
Spectrum Efficiency data connection requires allowing shared use of
 General Packet Radio Service
(GPRS or 2.5G)
Feature GSM (2G) GPRS (2.5G)
Uses packet switching for
Uses circuit switching for data, enabling more
Data Transmission
both voice and data efficient use of network
Method
services. resources for internet
services.
Allows for billing based
Billing is typically based
on the volume of data
Billing Model on the duration of the
transmitted, reflecting
call or connection.
usage patterns better.
Enables "always-on" data
Data services require
connection, improving
Service Availability dial-up and are not
accessibility to internet
always connected.
services.
 Reasons for higher data rates in
GPRS
1. Packet-Switched Network: Efficiency: GPRS uses a packet-switched
protocol, which is more efficient for data transmission than the circuit-
switched protocol used in GSM for voice. In packet-switching, data is
divided into packets and transmitted over the network. This allows multiple
users to share the same bandwidth resources dynamically, leading to better
utilization of the available spectrum.
2. Channel Coding Schemes: Adaptive Coding: GPRS introduces
adaptive coding schemes (CS-1 to CS-4) that allow the network to
dynamically adjust the coding scheme based on the quality of the radio link.
Higher coding schemes (e.g., CS-4) use less error correction, providing
higher throughput but requiring a stronger signal quality, while lower
coding schemes (e.g., CS-1) are more robust at the expense of data rate.
 Reasons for higher data rates in
GPRS
3. Time Slot Aggregation: Unlike GSM, which typically assigns a
single time slot for each user, GPRS allows for the allocation of
multiple time slots to a single user for both uplink and downlink.
This means that a user can transmit and receive data packets
simultaneously over several time slots, significantly increasing the
data throughput.
4. Use of All Available Channels: GPRS is designed to make
better use of the existing GSM network infrastructure by allowing
data transmission over all available channels, not just the
dedicated data channels. This flexible resource allocation further
contributes to higher data rates.
Use of Coding Schemes to increase
data rates in GPRS
• CS-1 (Coding Scheme 1)
• Description: CS-1 offers the highest level of error correction, making it the most
robust against poor signal conditions.
• Data Rate: Approximately 9.05 Kbps per time slot.
• Use Case: It is used in conditions where the signal quality is low, ensuring reliable
data transmission at the cost of lower throughput.

• CS-2 (Coding Scheme 2)

• Description: CS-2 provides a moderate level of error correction, balancing between
robustness and throughput.
• Data Rate: Approximately 13.4 Kbps per time slot.
• Use Case: It is suitable for slightly better signal conditions, allowing for increased
data rates compared to CS-1.
Use of Coding Schemes to increase
data rates in GPRS
• CS-3 (Coding Scheme 3)
• Description: CS-3 reduces the error correction further, offering higher data rates for
relatively good signal conditions.
• Data Rate: Approximately 15.6 Kbps per time slot.
• Use Case: Used when the network conditions are favorable enough to support higher
throughput with less need for error correction.

• CS-4 (Coding Scheme 4)

• Description: CS-4 has the least error correction, maximizing data throughput under
excellent signal conditions.
• Data Rate: Approximately 21.4 Kbps per time slot.
• Use Case: It is utilized in the best network conditions, where the signal quality is
high, to achieve the highest data rates in GPRS.
Use of Coding Schemes to increase
data rates in GPRS
• Dynamic Adaptation: GPRS networks dynamically select the
appropriate coding scheme based on the current link quality between
the mobile device and the base station. This adaptability ensures that
the network can provide the best possible data rate while maintaining
a reliable connection. The selection is made through a process called
link adaptation, where the network periodically evaluates the link
quality (e.g., signal-to-noise ratio) and adjusts the coding scheme as
necessary.
 Length of a Time slot in GSM and
in GPRS
• TDMA Frame Structure: The TDMA frame in GSM and GPRS is structured into multiple time
slots to allow multiple users to share the same frequency band. A single TDMA frame is divided
into 8 time slots, forming the basic unit for time-division in the network.
• Full TDMA Frame Duration: A full TDMA frame spans 4.615 milliseconds, divided equally
among the 8 time slots. This means each time slot has a duration of 0.577 milliseconds. During a
time slot, a mobile station can transmit or receive data.
• Implications for Data Transmission
• GSM: In GSM, each time slot in a frame is typically assigned to a different user for voice calls or
to carry signaling data. The fixed time slot duration is critical for synchronizing the transmission
and reception of signals across the network.
• GPRS: For GPRS, which enables packet-switched data transmission, the same time slot structure
is utilized to transmit data packets. However, GPRS introduces the capability for a mobile device
to use multiple time slots per frame for both uplink and downlink, thereby increasing the data
throughput. The use of coding schemes (CS-1 to CS-4) in GPRS also affects the net data rate
achievable per time slot, but the physical duration of a time slot remains constant.
 Frequency Bands and Channel
Numbers
• GSM-900 (Primary GSM band) Bandwidth of Each Channel
Each GSM/GPRS channel (also
• Uplink Frequency Range: 890-915 MHz
referred to as a physical channel) has a
• Downlink Frequency Range: 935-960 MHz
bandwidth of 200 kHz. This bandwidth
• Channel Numbers: 1 to 124 is consistent across all the frequency
• DCS-1800 (Also known as GSM-1800) bands used by GSM and GPRS.
• Uplink Frequency Range: 1710-1785 MHz
• Downlink Frequency Range: 1805-1880 MHz
• Channel Numbers: 512 to 885
• PCS-1900 (GSM-1900, used mainly in the Americas)
• Uplink Frequency Range: 1850-1910 MHz
• Downlink Frequency Range: 1930-1990 MHz
• Channel Numbers: 512 to 810
Integrating GPRS to GSM
 Integrating GPRS to GSM
The transition from GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) to GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
involved the introduction of several new components and functionalities into the existing GSM network
architecture. These additions enabled packet-switched data transmission, offering higher data rates and the
ability to use data services such as internet browsing and email on mobile devices. Here are the key blocks added
to the GSM architecture to upgrade it to GPRS:
1. Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
Functionality: The SGSN is a central component of the GPRS network that handles all packet-switched
data within its service area. It tracks the location of individual GPRS users and performs security functions and
access control.
Connection to GSM: It connects to the GSM network's Base Station Subsystem (BSS) via the Gb interface.
2. Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
Functionality: The GGSN acts as the interface between the GPRS network and external packet-switched
networks, such as the internet or X.25 networks. It converts the GPRS packets coming from the SGSN into
the appropriate packet data protocol (PDP) format for the external network and vice versa.
Connection to GSM: It connects to the SGSN via the Gn interface (within the same network) or the Gp
interface (for inter-operator communication).
 Integrating GPRS to GSM
• 3. GPRS Backbone Network
• Functionality: The backbone network provides the core infrastructure for data transmission between
the SGSN and the GGSN. It is based on Internet Protocol (IP) and allows for the routing of data
packets to and from the GPRS-enabled mobile devices.
• Components: The backbone network consists of IP-based infrastructure, including routers and
switches.
• 4. Border Gateway (BG)
• Functionality: The BG is used when connecting to external GPRS networks, acting as a routing and
control point for traffic between GGSNs in different GPRS networks.
• Purpose: It ensures secure and efficient data transmission across GPRS networks operated by
different service providers.
• 5. PCU (Packet Control Unit)
• Functionality: The PCU is responsible for the segmentation and reassembly of data packets into
frames that can be transmitted over the air interface. It also handles the allocation of radio resources
for GPRS services.
• Connection to GSM: It is usually physically located at the BSC (Base Station Controller), managing
the data traffic between the BSS and the SGSN.