Intoduction Agricultural Extension
Intoduction Agricultural Extension
ARSI UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMICS
ADUNAA AMANTE (MA)
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Chapter 1: History, Development and Future of
Agricultural Extension
1.1. The History and Future of Extension
Combination of factors such as the need to develop a productive
agriculture,
The need for people modern namely populated countries to feed the
mentioned?
When you check up the word “extension” in the dictionary, it is stated
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as “extended or projected”.
1.2. Extension terminology and evolving definition
of Technology (TOT).
"To give advice" or "to advise". This is very similar to TOT.
smaller groups and the extentionist is the counselor who "helps" the
farmers. Relationships are essentially based on confidence.
"To take counsel" or "to deliberate". The aim here is to find new solutions
4 to problems.
Extension terminology and evolving definition …
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1.3. communication processes within Extension system
it involves the change agent (extension worker) attempting to work on the
improve the knowledge and develop the skill of the clientele (farmer) as
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it is different from the formal education.
Communication processes within Extension system…
Extension education is the process of teaching rural people how to
live better by learning ways that improve their farm, home and
community institutions – J.P. Leagans (1961).
Extension education is an applied science consisting of content
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Communication processes within Extension system…
Informal Education Formal Education
1. It is an informal education. 1. It is a formal education.
It has a definite syllabus.
It has no definite syllabus
After completing the syllabus,
(curriculum ).
students have to appear in an
There is no examination, and no
examination and after evaluation;
degree or other certificate is given the degrees and certificates are
to the participating student. awarded to the student.
2. The work of extension education is 2. Institutional Education has a definite
according to the needs of the people programme and do not run according
and availability of resources. to the needs of the student
3. In it, the problems of the people are 3. In it the problems of the student are
solved by the people. solved by the teacher.
4. People involved are of different age 4. Students are of same age and the
and abilities. same qualification.
5. Teaching is according to the interest 5. Here, teaching is according syllabus.
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of the of the learner.
Communication processes within Extension system…
Informal Education Formal Education
6. The field of extension 6. Its area is limited in the
education being related to institution only.
farms and villages is
unlimited. 7. In it, the students have
7. The rural people learn to learn compulsorily.
with their own desire. 8. The presence of the
student is compulsory.
8. The presence of the rural
people is voluntary. 9. In it, the teacher, only
9. In extension education instruct the student.
the teacher also learns 10. In the institutional
from the learner. education, only the
10. By extension education knowledge of student is
the human behavior is increased.
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changed.
Communication processes within Extension system…
B). Communication Dimension:
This involves dissemination of information to the clientele on
extension policies are going obsolete with regard to new options (SDR
2005).
A shift was needed from a single commodity, mono-disciplinary base to
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Paradigms of Agricultural Extension…
involved.
This is by mobilizing members of the communities to improve their
involved.
The youth, are encouraged to form themselves to clubs and organizations
so that they can exchange ideas and become useful to themselves and
their communities.
It is also discourage rural-urban migration and retain labor for
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agricultural product work.
Scope and uses of Extension Education
Extension education effectively works in the following professional areas :
Increasing agricultural production
Youth development
Leadership development
extension work and these principles are the bedrock upon which
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Basic Principles of extension…
1. Extension should start where the people are. Williams et al., 1984
believed that extension should work at the level where the people are,
degree of readiness.
It means personal contact with the local condition, and its environment,
The first principle therefore implies that to succeed with farmers, new
ideas must be related to what the farmer already knows and that with
which he is familiar.
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Basic Principles of extension…
2. Extension should be based on the needs and interests of the
people in the rural set up since the needs and interests of people
vary from one set of people to the other due to difference in culture.
Extension can only function if these two variables are put into
consideration.
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Basic Principles of extension…
3. Extension should assist farmers to determine their own problems, help
them to find desirable solutions and to encourage them to take action.
This assistance does not imply that the extension worker’s problems are
replica of the farmer’s problems and does not indicate that the farmers
cannot think on their own.
Embarking on this will enable the farmers to have the perception that the
in any way solve their problems on their behalf as this will amount to
imposing his own value judgment on them.
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Basic Principles of extension…
4. It is an established fact that human beings have unsatisfied wants, this
assertion is also applicable to the farmers.
An extension worker cannot go far with people unless they want to help
themselves, therefore programmes must start with the felt needs of the
people and proceed to others that are also needed by them.
The wants of the people must be kept in reasonable relationship with the
25achieve them.
Basic Principles of extension…
5. The principle of co-operative work must be pursued to logical
conclusion.
extension teaching.
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Basic Principles of extension…
7. The principle of the use of variety of teaching methods is another
basic principle.
In this case, a teaching method can be conceived in teaching a
that no one method will help to bring out desirable changes in people.
No method therefore is an island.
The implication of this principle is that, the more the variety of ways a
topic is presented and practiced, the quicker the people tend to grasp
the subject matter.
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Basic Principles of extension…
8 In African rural communities, participation in extension
programme is voluntary and therefore programmes must meet the
varying needs of individuals.
Participation in extension programmes differ significantly in age,
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Basic Principles of extension…
9. Extension workers should provide maximum opportunity for the people
to work on programmes that have been determined by them and the
extension agent working together.
The joint determination of the programmes is one thing and full
people are never interested in programmes which they have not helped to
30 develop.
Basic Principles of extension…
10. Extension workers should take advantage of any existing local groups to
involve the people in extension programmes.
The people in rural areas tend to listen more to the local leaders than even the
extension workers since they are power brokers and the inability of the extension
agent to work with them makes it impossible for him to succeed in his
programmes.
This principle must be strictly adhered to if innovation is to be well adopted by
the local people.
The existence of these local leaders makes it possible for extension agents to
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councils.
Basic Principles of extension…
11. Subject matter covered in extension must have definite purpose and must be
specific so that programme would be able to achieve the purpose for which it was
established.
The subject matter here refers to the content of the extension programme, which
must be relevant to the lives of the rural people and must therefore be useful to
them.
The content of the programme must be presented when it is most needed by the
people.
The subject matter covered must therefore be attainable within the time available,
and within physical and economic resources of clientele, and within the social
condition and learning ability of the participants.
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Basic Principles of extension…
It should appraise periodically its work in the light of existing and changing conditions so that it
Extension workers have to make endless decisions and then act according to what they
Extension workers should therefore work with extension professionals who can sell their
14. Learning is a gradual process and therefore results must not be expected too soon.
Research evidence has shown that learners must be exposed to new ideas over a period
of time and in variety of ways before they begin to respond to them.
The adoption rate is therefore to be considered as a gradual process.
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Basic Principles of extension…
15. Adult learning remains high throughout life. Adults have had years of
varied experience, set beliefs and habits.
Their beliefs and habits tend to change very slowly.
The Extension workers must therefore use all available strategies in taking care
16. A closer principle to the one just highlighted is the principle that extension is
educational in function through assisting people to make their own
decisions among various alternatives put before them.
Extension workers should not be involved with supply activities.
The farmers may be expecting the extension agents to supply them with needed
Without the use of the volunteer leader, most of the planned programmes will not
be achieved.
resources.
live and an extension agent does not try to take these decisions for them.
Rural people can and do make wise decisions about their problems if they are
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encourages farmers to make decisions.
B. Guiding principles of extension…
ii. Extension is accountable to its clients
On the one hand, they are accountable to their senior officers and to the government
departments that determine rural development policies.. Agents are expected to follow
On the other hand, extension is the servant of the rural people and it has the responsibility
One measure of effectiveness is to see how well policies and plans have been carried out.
An equally important measure is the extent to which incomes and living standards of the
37 The extension agent's task is to bring these needs together.
B. Guiding principles of extension…
When the problem is being defined. Being in regular contact with the
farmers, the extension agent can help research workers to understand the
farming problems of the area and the limitations under which farmers have
to work.
When recommendations are being tested in the field. A new farm
39 activities that seek to produce change for the better in rural society.
B. Guiding principles of extension…
problems.
Some will have more land than others and will be keen to try out new ideas.
Different groups need to be identified and the agent will have to develop
4. Mainspring and belief: Extension worker should come and help farmers,
encourage them to participate in extension programs, make them completely
believe that they can decide and act to improve their livings by themselves.
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Chapter summary
The main point in this unit includes the following:
The prominent features of a system, such as its organizational structure, the choice of
clientele, its operational design, and the methods used, are directly influenced by its
set of goals and must be evaluated in terms of their contribution to goal achievement.
1. Technology Transfer
Until the end of the eighteenth century, farming techniques developed gradually and
The rise of agricultural sciences has induced dramatic changes in this respect.
Increasingly, new technology has been created outside the actual farming
the extent to which its approach fits the programme goals for which it was
established“.
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Technology driven versus need oriented
Types of Extension Approaches
It also assumes that farm people are too poor to pay the
whole cost. So, central and regional government typically
55 provides most of it.
8. Participatory approaches in extension
Participation of the people involved in development
food from their land, but their levels of living & productivity
could be improved by learning more of what is known
outside.
There is an indigenous knowledge system and while it is
increased the speed and quality of information transfer and changed the role
of extension workers in industrialized countries.
Electronic communications systems may in part replace personal visits, and
one of the major tasks of any agent will be to link her or his clients with other
suppliers of information.
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Present and future role of extension staff…
Fieldwork in most developing countries is characterized by conditions that
issues, identify indigenous needs and problem solutions, and serve as a link
to the world outside the village, to name but a few of the present topics.
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Chapter 3: Extension Strategies
3.1. Definition
Extension Education involves voluntary participation based on farmer’s
participants.
In formal education there is a high level of compulsion and set standards that
must be fulfilled.
In Agricultural extension the teaching is informal due to the heterogeneous
audience and the fact that the education process takes place in clientele’s place
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Definition…
Today ,strategy is used in business to describe the steps taken by the
NGOs.
A natural way of doing business
organization;
refers to basic directional decisions, that is , purposes and missions;
the question: what are the ends we seek and how should we achieve them;
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Definition…
What is Strategic planning?
their resources.
To help in planning and implementing the family and village plans for increasing
Specific Objectives
To provide knowledge and help for better management of farms and increase
incomes.
To encourage the farmers to grow his own food, eat well and live well.
To promote better social, natural recreational intellectual and spiritual file among
the people.
Extension Objectives…
To open new opportunities for developing talents and leadership of rural people.
Independent in thinking.
Constructive in outlook.
Steps
Step 1: Restate all negative conditions of the problem tree into positive
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3.2.3. Selecting Appropriate Extension Method
considered;
4.
65 Use visual aids and written material where required.
Chapter 4: Diffusion and Adoption of Innovation
4.1. Definition
According to Rogers (1995) Adoption process is a mental process
immediate.
The farmer’s decision to accept or reject adoption of science based
These may be new varieties of crops and plants, new breeds of livestock or
fish species, new chemicals and medicines, new technique of doing thing
etc.
Farmers themselves may develop some new practices, which are also
innovations.
Irrespective of the time period the idea or practice was originally developed,
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knowledge based technology
Innovation and diffusion of Innovation…
individual process.
Diffusion and adoption are thus closely interrelated concepts and
processes.
Generally;
The spread of an innovation within a social system is called
something.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated
1. The innovation
2. Communication channels
3. Time
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Diffusion …
1. The innovation:-
Why do certain innovations spread more quickly than others?
are:
1. Relative advantage
2. Compatibility
3. Complexity
4. Trial ability
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Diffusion …
2. Communication
Communication is the process by which participants create and share
3. Time
The time dimension is involved in diffusion in three ways.
individual (or other decision making unit) passes from first knowledge
of an innovation to forming an attitude toward the innovation, to a
decision to adopt or reject, to implementation of the new idea, and to
confirmation of this decision.
Diffusion …
The innovation decision process follow 5-Step:
system.
Social System: It is a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint
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Diffusion …
2. Norms: These are the established behavior patterns. Opinion leaders
exhibit the norms.
The members or units of a social system may be individuals, informal
diffuses.
Norms are the established behavior patterns for the members of a
social system.
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4.3. Process of Adoption
The decision to adopt an innovation, involves a process composed of
This is the starting stage wherein the farmer comes to know the existence of the
new idea but he doesn’t have full information about the idea.
At this stage farmer is aware of the idea, but lacks detailed information about it.
The farmer develops interest in the innovation and seeks additional information
about it either from extension officer or from fellow farmers or from any source,
That means the farmer acquires more information about an innovation or idea by
wanting to know what the innovation/idea is, how it works and what its
potentialities are.
Process of Adoption…
new idea in the present and anticipated future situations and decides
whether or not to try it.
He/she judges the utility of the innovation, makes an assessment
away on a large scale because he/she doesn’t want to take risk even
though the potential of the idea has been proved.
Process of Adoption…
The new idea is applied on a small scale in order to determine its utility or
in his own situation, the farmer uses the new idea continuously on a full
scale.
Trial may be considered as the practical evaluation of an innovation.
It provides the advantage of the innovation and hence the farmer takes
Generally;
Adoption of innovation as a process composed of learning, deciding
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4.4. Characteristics of Social system of Adoption
Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated
individual.”
An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new
Characteristics of Innovation
There are five perceived attributes of innovations in universal
terms.
1. Relative Advantage:
It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being
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Characteristics of social system of Adoption …
2. Compatibility:
the existing values, past experiences, and the need of potential adopter.
Eating food with left hand lack compatibility with social norm as left
3. Complexity:
It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as
4. Trialability:
It is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented
scale, but new machinery or a thing like cow dung gas plant
can not be so tried.
The trial ability of an innovation as perceived by social system
5. Observability:
It is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to
others.
The observability of an innovation as perceived by members of a
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Adopter Categories…
1. Innovators:
Innovators are also known as ‘venturesome’. Venture sameness is the salient
innovation.
They are risky, hazardous and daring in nature.
2. Early Adopters:
Early Adopters are also known as ‘respectable’.
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Adopter Categories…
3. Early Majority:
Early Majority are also known as ‘deliberate’.
They adopt new ideas just before the average member of a social
system.
They seldom hold leadership position.
Motto of early majority is- “Be not the first by which the new is
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Adopter Categories…
4. Late Majority:
Late Majority are also known as ‘skeptical’/ unconvinced
They adopt new ideas just after the average member of a social
system.
They adopt an innovation when they feel that it is safe to adopt.
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Adopter Categories…
5. Laggards:
Laggards are also known as ‘traditional’. They are the last in a
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Categorization of Adopters of Innovation
Chapter 5: Extension and Extension Education
raising livestock.
2. Supply and credit are concerned with obtaining the physical inputs.
3.
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Marketing is concerned with the storage transport and sale of output.
Extension and Government policy…
land and water, with agricultural rules, quality control and so on.
in which extension helps the farmers to get these facilities from the
concerned departments.
circumstances.
such a way that they are able to make similar decisions themselves in the
future.
Stimulating desirable agricultural development.
10 Helping farmers’ to establish farmers’ organizations and cooperative.
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5.3. The role of Agricultural Extension Services in the AKIS
AKS (Agricultural Knowledge System): a collection of actors, such as
persons, and the links and interactions between them, engaged in the generation,
transformation, transmission, storage, retrieval, integration, diffusion and
utilization of knowledge and information, with the purpose of working
synergistically to support decision making, problem solving and innovation in
agriculture” (Roling and Engel, 1991).
The role of Agricultural Extension Services in the AKIS…
This concept develops the notion of AKS, emphasizing the process of
knowledge generation and includes actors outside the research, education and
advice sectors.
AIS (Agricultural Innovation Systems): defined as ‘a network of
organizations, enterprises, and individuals focused on bringing new products,
new processes, and new forms of organization into economic use, together
with the institutions and policies that affect the way different agents interact,
share, access, exchange and use knowledge’ (Leeuwis and Ban, 2004).
Role of Extension Worker: The role of extension worker while living among
4. To create self- belief in rural people- Till now rural people has no faith upon their own
power.
They still depend on government assistance for the development work.
So, it is important to make them understand or convince them that they can do most of
5. Emphasis on self dependence: - Their needs like food, clothing and housing, were
fulfilled in villages itself, but now they have to go outside to fulfill their basic needs and
still they are unable to earn enough for themselves.
Therefore, it is necessary to bring change in this situation and to teach lesson of self-
6. To develop the close relations between research centre and agricultural farm– A
close coordination is to be developed between research centre and agricultural farm.
So that scientific information can be given to the farmers and their problems can be
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6 addressed to the scientific institution for solution.
The role of Agricultural Extension Services in the AKIS…
7. Full use of present local resources–In order to enhance the extension work and rural
industries like agriculture and cottage industries, it is necessary to efficiently utilities the
available local resources so that people can become self-dependent.
10. Change in social attitude– Selfishness is increasing day by day and it is harmful for
the society and the country.
“Extension worker should try to bring change in this mental attitude of people so that
they can sacrifice their selfishness for the welfare of the society and country and may
become partners in the reconstruction of the country.
Group Assignment (10%)
G1. Sustainable agriculture and its elements
This understanding of “extension” is much broader than that originally implied by the English
instructions to farmers.
“transfer of technology”.
The assumption was that scientists develop a package of seeds and inputs such as fertilizer and
pesticides. This package is then delivered to farmers along with a set of recommendations.
The most famous extension approach following a transfer of technology approach is the
“Training & Visit” (T&V) system, which was the main vehicle for rolling out the “Green
In the T&V system an advisor or extensions visits a group of farmers at regular intervals and
3. Extension Work - It means the whole structure of Extension work. It includes the process
of Extension Education i.e. the process of teaching and learning.
Besides the process, in extension work are included organizations, administration,
supervision, finances as well as the programs for the overall development.
4. Extension Service - It means an organization and/or a programme for the welfare and
development, which employs the extension educational process for the implementation of
programme.
It is thus same as that of extension work except that in extension service there has been
daily experiences and exposure to environment at home - at work, from friends, radio,
television, papers and books etc.
Formal Education - It is institutionalized, chronologically graded and well-structured system of
carried on outside formal educational system in order to provide certain selected type of learning
to the selected group of individuals which include adults, young as well as the children.
Training has been provided on skill development of various aspects, which may help in
generation of employment.
Farmwomen clubs, self-help groups, Home Science activities such as health, nutrition,
childcare, sanitation and fruit and vegetable preservation etc.
Extension education…
8. Technology assessment for sustainable agriculture and rural development is defined here
as a comprehensive approach to examine the actual or potential impact of technology
applications on certain sustainability issues and second order consequences and to
facilitate the development and use of technological interventions according to location-
specific constraints and objectives.
9. Technology transfer was taken to mean a system under which various inter-related
components of technology, namely, “hardware” (materials such as a variety), “software”
(technique, know-how, information), human ware (human ability), “organ-ware”
(organizational, management aspects) and the final product (including marketing) are
rendered accessible to the end-users (farmers).
and fisheries sectors) conserve land, water, plant and animal genetic
resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically
appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable.
Extension education…
Characteristics of Extension Education: Extension Education is- co-operative
raised.
Facility for rural industry related knowledge.
industry.
Proper educational facilities for rural people.
Extension education…
b. Development of environment of people:
Arrangement of family-education.
learning process.
Creating situation includes providing activities, materials, and guidance
extension agent.
The extension agent has to move step by step in a scientific way to
impart training to the clients who are farmers, farm women, and
rural youth.
The role of the extension agent is that of a facilitator and motivator.
development change.
Therefore, attention is the starting point to arousal of the interest.
The famous extension saying is, 'seeing is believing'. Thus, seeing and hearing are
own situation and acquire confidence in their own ability to participate in the people-
centered developmental initiatives.
Step5: Action: Unless this conviction is converted into action, the efforts of extension
For example, if the adoption of a new high yielding maize variety is the action needed
by farmers, that variety should be available within the reach of farming communities
along with other recommended package of practices. If the action does not quickly
follow desire and conviction, the new idea may fade away. Therefore, this phase
should never be ignored.
Chapter Summary…
Step6: Satisfaction: Satisfaction is the end product of extension
teaching process.
Follow up by extension and development workers helps people to
Chapter Six
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6.1.1. According to use
One way of classifying the extension methods is according to their use &
nature of contact.
In other words, whether they are used for contacting people individually,
in groups or in masses.
Based upon the nature of contact, they are divided into individual, group
1. Individual-contact method-
Extension methods under this category provide opportunities for face-to-
face or person-to-person contact between the rural people & the extension
workers.
These methods are very effective in teaching new skills & creating good
2. Group-contact methods-
Under this category, the rural people or farmers are contacted in a group
These methods also involve a face-to-face contact with the people &
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According to use…
disseminating a new information & helping them to use it. this can be
done through mass-contact methods conveniently.
These methods are more useful for making people aware of the new
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According to use…
National demonstration
Office calls Leaflets
leader-training meetings
Motion-picture or movies,
Personal letters Official calls
charts
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1
Extension teaching methods …
a. Learning situation: - The learning situation comprises the extension worker who
has clear objectives, knows the subject matter to be taught and is able to
communicate freely with the farmers.
An effective learning situation requires the following essential elements:
2. Learners (the farmers, the processors, the farm women and the youth).
directed .
Any purposeful teaching has specific objectives which must contain four basic
1. individual methods
3. mass methods.
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Extension teaching methods …
1. Individual Methods
Individual methods are used in extension teaching in recognition of the fact that
learning is an individual process and that the personal influence of the extension
worker is an important factor in securing people’s participation in extension
activities.
The various methods which come under the classification of individual methods
include:-
farm and home visits,
office calls,
telephone calls,
personal letters,
informal contacts and
result demonstrations.
Extension teaching methods …
the pressures and opinions of groups in which he participates and to listen to the
views of others before arriving at a decision about making changes in his farming
operations.
Group method include:-
general meetings,
group discussion,
exhibits,
method demonstrations,
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Selecting and using teaching materials/techniques
For an effective use of extension-teaching methods, it is not enough to know
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Selecting and using teaching materials/techniques
These stages are known as:
The awareness stage- when a person comes to know of a new practice but
smells.
The meaning we attach to the raw information received through our senses
is called perception.
Alternatively, interpretation of sensory information is perception
(Woolfolk, 1995).
It is what is immediately experienced by a person.
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1
Perception…
Nature of perception
1. Perception is a process
Perception is essentially a process rather than a product and outcome of
sensory receptors are just the receiving and transmitting centers of the
sensory information.
perception…
situation.
Different individuals do not perceive objects, events, or relationships in much the
same way.
Event individual perceptions of the same event may vary.
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6.2.2. Attitude
The most general and simplest view is that attitudes are likes and dislikes
individuals.
There are numerous definitions of the concept attitude given by social
psychologists.
Most of them view attitudes as inclinations or predispositions.
That is, we are not born with our attitudes we acquire them via the socialization
process
An attitude is not passive, but rather it exerts a dynamic or directive influence on
behaviour.
Attitudes believed to directly influence behaviour.
More recently, Petty and Cacioppo (1986) defined attitudes that capture the
In other words, attitudes involve lasting likes and dislikes, preferences and
Our response to an object is often in line with what we believe about and
how we feel toward that object. Thus an attitude comprises three parts.
1. Cognitive component
The cognitive component is the storage component where we organize
2. Affective component
The affective component is the emotional (like-dislike) component of an
attitude.
For example, I do not like Mr ‘X’ because he discriminates against a
specific group.
Attitude…
someone or something.
For example, I might choose to avoid Mr ‘X’ because my feeling about him.
Having an idea or belief about the object is the minimum condition for having an
unpleasant events or with your aspirations and goals, you attach a corresponding
affect or an emotional tinge to that object.
This affected belief energizes and directs your response with regard to the object.
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6.3.Method of influencing Human Behavior
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Method of influencing Human Behavior…
He must be able to check whether the person coerced is behaving in the desired manner.
Application of coercer power means that the person applying the power is responsible for
adulteration in agricultural inputs i.e. fertilizers, pesticides etc. are of this type.
Dairy inspectors sometimes have to coerce dairy farmers to follow more hygienic
practices in their milking sheds
Method of influencing Human Behavior…
2. Exchange: - goods or services are exchanged between two individuals or
groups.
The conditions necessary for applying this methods are that:
Each party in the exchange process considers the transaction in their favor
Each can only deliver his part when the exchange goods or services have
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1
Method of influencing Human Behavior…
3. Advice: advice is given on which solution to choose from for a certain problem.
We can use this methods if;
The farmer agrees with us about the nature of his problem and criteria for
solve his problem in a way that has been tested scientifically or in practice.
The farmer is confident that we can and will help him with a solution to his
problem.
We don’t think it is necessary or possible for the farther to solve the problem
himself and;
The farmer has sufficient means at his disposal to carry out the advice.
4. Openly influencing a farmer’s knowledge level and attitudes: this method may be
applied when:
We believe the farmer cannot solve his own problem if he has insufficient or incorrect
his attitude.
We have this knowledge or know to get it.
We can use teaching methods to transmit this knowledge or to influence the farmer’s
attitude.
The farmer trusts our experts and motives and is prepared to cooperate with us in our task
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for making financial and physical means available to
5 farmers.
Method of influencing Human Behavior…
7. Providing service: - this may involve taking over
certain tasks from the farmers. This method can be
used if;
We have the knowledge and or means available to
perform the task better or more economically than
the farmer.
We agree with the farmer that it is useful to perform
these tasks; and
We are prepared to perform them for him.
In advanced countries the farmers have to provide
information to the government regarding income,
resources, and statistical returns for livestock
number, crop production etc in a very long and
complicated form. Extension agent can help them in
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filling these returns. This is not in our situations.
6
Method of influencing Human Behavior…
8. Changing the farmer’s social and economic structure: methods for this
aspect may be an important means of influence when;
structures influence their prospects for making a better living and enjoying
a more comfortable style of life.
6.4. Designing Effective Extension Messages
Farmers have different information requirements at each stage of the adoption process.
This means that extension staff must understand which stage farmers are at before planning subject
matter and extension methods. Questions to help understand this process include:
Should information be provided to make farmers aware of a new idea? If yes, perhaps radio and
posters, or folk drama and folk song might be the most effective methods.
Should detailed information be provided when farmers have become aware and are interested?
If yes, perhaps leaflets with detailed technical information should be printed and circulated, or group
discussion meetings arranged, or field days held at a demonstration site, or articles published in local
newspapers.
Should information be provided to increase specific skills in the use of a new technique so that farmers
can make a full evaluation? If yes, perhaps method demonstrations and formal training days would be
the most useful extension method.
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8
Designing Effective Extension Messages…
are trying a new idea for the first time? If yes, perhaps individual
farm visits and group discussions would be the most useful
extension method. Perhaps extension staff could also meet with the
whole farm family to discuss the new idea.
Should support be provided to farmers to reinforce the benefits of a
new idea which has been adopted? If yes, perhaps group discussion
meetings should be arranged, or a radio interview with the farmer,
or the farmer could be invited as a resource person to a DAE
extension event.
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9
Method of influencing Human Behavior…
effective;
coverage - choosing group extension methods which will reach more than one or
a few farmers;
complexity - selecting simple methods which do not need a lot of materials, or a
farmers;
Participation - choosing methods which enable farmers to participate in the
learning process.
Method of influencing Human Behavior…
The choice depends on: the message, the
participants, available resources; and
Complementarity.
The Message; - The extension method should be
appropriate to the subject, or message. For example,
a method demonstration might be the most
appropriate way to show a group of farmers how to
graft mango.
The Participants; - The extension method should be
suitable for farmers, the participants. For example, a
method demonstration in the homestead area might
be the most appropriate for female farmers.
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1
Cont.…
Women are responsible for many agricultural development tasks, especially in female
headed households, and should therefore be specifically targeted for certain extension
services. There are number of important factors to consider when planning extension
activities with women’s groups:
Timing; -Extension staff should consider whether the activity needs to be scheduled at a
particular time of day. For women’s groups this may be very different to the times that
male farmers groups meet. For example, during a Participatory Rural Appraisal in one
area of Bangladesh, Enfants du Monde staff found that women preferred activities to take
place between 1 p.m. and 3 p.m., after they had fed the household at lunchtime, and
before preparing dinner. Men preferred activities to take place between 11 a.m. and 1 p.m.
Extension staff should aim to plan the timing of activities in consultation with the groups
they are working with.
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3
Cont.…
is children. Women are usually responsible for looking after children, whether
they are working in a homestead area, or participating in a group activity.
Extension staff should make allowances for this, or plan a separate activity
for children.
Location; -While it is useful to meet a group of men in the field to discuss a
crop related issue, it is easier to meet women in the homestead. Many NGO
women’s groups have regular meeting places. Extension staff can find out
where these are, and whether it is possible to use them for extension events.
Problem Census meetings should enable female farmers to identify their own
needs, generate some ideas for development, and help to plan activities that
they need in order to develop their homestead and farm. If women are
meaningfully involved in this way then extension plans are more likely to be
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4 gender responsive.
CHAPTER SEVEN
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5
7.1. What is participation?
cycle.
The learning cycle makes flexible use of a variety of participatory methods and
have identified the most pressing of these, the extension workers provide
technical knowledge and technologies, which may be useful to resolve the
problems identified.
To perform well in a PEA, extension workers need not only agricultural expertise,
but also good analytical, pedagogical and facilitating skills (Anonymous, 2004).
What is participation…
Most field work for community development or extension activities has three
outsiders or those in higher authority, the community and its leaders are
encouraged and given opportunities so they can;
Identify their owns needs.
Have decision making power to call in particular resources which they feel are
efforts of implementation,
What is participation…
Feed the results of that self-evaluation back into a new planning action cycle,
who can all learn from each other and contribute their knowledge and skills.
Strengthening of rural people’s problem-solving, planning and management
abilities.
Promotion of farmers’ capacity to adapt and develop new and appropriate
social groups with conflicts and differences in interests, power and capabilities.
The goal is to achieve equitable and sustainable development through the
negotiation of interests among these groups and by providing space for the poor
and marginalized in collective decision-making.
The role of the extension agent is to facilitate this process.
Researchers also have a role – they assist farmers and extension agents in joint
however is that in the application of the approach, all stakeholders are viewed as
equal partners who have different but important roles to play. The identified
principles of PEA are:
Integration of community mobilization for planning, implementation, monitoring
agents who can all learn from each other and contribute their knowledge and
skills.
PEA aims to strengthen rural people's problem- solving, planning and
management abilities. It enhances and strengthens the capacity of farmers to
adapt and develop new and appropriate technologies and innovations in all
sectors of the rural economy.
Principles and Values of Participatory Approaches…
PEA encourages smallholder farmers to learn through experimentation, building
on their own knowledge and practices, and blending them with new ideas. This
takes place in a cycle of reflection and action which is referred to as “action
learning.”
PEA recognizes that communities are not homogenous, but consist of various
social groups with conflicts and differences in interests, power and capabilities.
The goal is to achieve equitable and sustainable development through the
negotiation of interests among these groups and by providing space for the poor
and marginalized in collective decision making.
7.4. When to Improve Participation Approach
Again through experience, a core set of values are recognized as underpinning
PEA:
Self-reliance: local people should be empowered to rely on their own capabilities
and assets rather than expect handouts, which often result in dependency on the
external agent,
Inclusiveness: development initiatives should not discriminate against any
members of the community but rather aim for the total inclusion of all persons,
rich and poor, men and women,
Ownership and control: people should take decisions and lead development
always aim to build on local knowledge and draw upon local experiences in
problem- solving,
When to Improve Participation Approach…
Learning through sharing and experimentation: people are better able to
understand new ideas and adopt new technologies when they have learnt of the
potential benefits of sharing and self-experimentation,
Unity and co-operation: local organizations are important as vehicles for
Passive People participate when they are told what is going to happen or has already happened. It is a unilateral
participation announcement by an administration or project management without listening to people’s responses.
The information being shared belong s to only to external professionals.
Participation in People participate by answering questions posed by extractive researchers using questionnaire surveys
supply of or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings as the finding of
information the research are neither shared nor checked for accuracy.
Participation People participate by being consulted, and external agents listen to their views. The external agents
through define both problems and solutions, and may modify these in the light of people’s response. Such a
consultation consultative process does not concede any share in decision making, and professionals are under no
obligation to accept people’s views.
Participation People participate by providing resources, for example labor, in return for food, cash or other material
through incentives, much on farm research falls in this category, as farmers provide the fields but are not
provision of involved in the experimentation or the process of learning. It is very common to see this participation.
material However, people take no interest in activities when the incentives end.
incentives
Functional People participate by forming groups to meet pre-determined objectives related to the project,
participation which can involve the development or promotion of externally initiated social organizations.
Such involvement does not tend to be at the early stages of the project cycles or planning but
rather after major decisions have been made. These institutions tend to dependent on external
initiators and facilitators but may become self-defendant.
Interactive People participate in joint analysis which leads to action plan and the formation of new local
participation institutions or the strengthening of existing ones. It tends to involve interdisciplinary methodologies
that seek multiple perspectives makes use of systematic and structured learning processes. These
groups take control over local decisions; therefore people have a stake in maintaining structures or
practices.
Self- People participate by taking initiative independent of external institutions to change systems. Such
mobilization self- initiated mobilization and collective action may or may not challenge existing inequitable
distribution of wealth and power.
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7
CHAPTER EIGHT
CHALLENGES FOR AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION POLICIES
8.1. Challenges for Farmers and agriculture at large
There is already ample evidence that the epidemic has changed the very fabric of
Second, the impact of the epidemic on the extension organization itself and its
staff; and
Third, the impact of HIV/AIDS on the clientele of extension services.
1. Nature of the extension work
The workers, who have the most frequent contact with the small-scale farmers,
with traditional, mostly illiterate rural households, in order to provide them with
technical advice not only on agricultural technologies but also on relevant
subjects like farm input supply, credit, marketing and farm management. of the
epidemic.
cont.
Most of the extension staff themselves have their
genetic roots in rural families.
They travel frequently in rural areas, many times
spending nights away from home, and being
offered “hospitality” in villages due to their
status.
Also, they are in touch with so many widows
forced into farming because of their husbands’
death, who need extension advice.
Thus, the extension workers have ample
opportunities of getting involved with multiple
sex partners.
All these factors expose the extension staff to
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1 the maximum risk of HIV infection, especially
The impacts of epidemic on extension organization itself and its staff
A number of their colleagues have already become victim to the disease, and
more bad news is feared almost every day. The talk of colleagues’ demise is
common in office meetings more than ever before. Then, they have the
unbearable burden, in terms of time, money and energy, of taking care of their
close sick relatives and visiting sick neighbors.
Some of them have lost their spouses, thus leaving them not only grieved but also
with the responsibility of taking care of minor children. Extension workers who
by training are required to motivate farmers to try and adopt new agricultural
technology are themselves depressed and frustrated, and this affects their output.
Reduction and disruptions in staff
This is due to disruptions in their programmes caused by deaths, protracted sickness and
Both public and private extension additional expenditure is related to payments for
treatment of sick staff and their relatives, funerals of dead staff, compensation, salary
advances, early retirements, recruitment and training of new staff, and for buying
insurance coverage. The increased costs are bound to affect the performance of public
extension departments as most of them already suffer from very low operational budgets.
The frequency of visits to the field will dwindle further and the few in-service training
opportunities the staff have will also disappear.
Established technical practices going obsolete
The years old administrative, strategic, policy and operational
not received any special training in this subject; feel helpless and
embarrassed in front of the farmers. They are not in a position to
offer any useful information or meaningful advice.
Over the past decade, some 13 million ha of forests a year were converted into other land
uses
Half of the fish stock are exploited
The share of water available for agriculture is expected to decline to 40% by 2050 as
They are most dependent on agriculture as local economies are inadequately diversified
change
Demand for irrigation will grow by 5 – 20 % worldwide
productivity growth
But Total Factor Productivity - Difference in growth between outputs and