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Intoduction Agricultural Extension

The document provides an overview of agricultural extension, detailing its history, definitions, and principles. It emphasizes the importance of communication, education, and community involvement in enhancing agricultural practices and improving the livelihoods of farmers. Key principles include addressing the needs of the community, encouraging participation, and utilizing various teaching methods to facilitate learning.

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Muzayen Sheko
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
81 views190 pages

Intoduction Agricultural Extension

The document provides an overview of agricultural extension, detailing its history, definitions, and principles. It emphasizes the importance of communication, education, and community involvement in enhancing agricultural practices and improving the livelihoods of farmers. Key principles include addressing the needs of the community, encouraging participation, and utilizing various teaching methods to facilitate learning.

Uploaded by

Muzayen Sheko
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Course: Introduction to Agricultural Extension

ARSI UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMICS
ADUNAA AMANTE (MA)
1
Chapter 1: History, Development and Future of
Agricultural Extension
1.1. The History and Future of Extension
 Combination of factors such as the need to develop a productive

agriculture,
 The need for people modern namely populated countries to feed the

common good and


 The preoccupation with public health and environmental protection, have

led to efforts to change voluntary behavior through communication.


 The process of implementation, analysis of the results and reflection has

led to emergence of a body of knowledge serving practitioners, managers

2 and trainers who are professionally engaged in these efforts.


The History and Future of Extension…
Featured of Extension
a. No fixed curriculum

b. It is a non classroom project

c. The audience is heterogeneous and non captive

d. Subject matter is practical and intended for immediate use

e. Values people rather than things

f. It is based on the needs of the people.


What comes to your mind when the word agricultural extension is

mentioned?
When you check up the word “extension” in the dictionary, it is stated
3
as “extended or projected”.
1.2. Extension terminology and evolving definition

 Extension can mean one or combinations of the following:

 "To extend". This means acquiring agricultural knowledge from the

results of agricultural research and taking it to farmers.


 In this case extension is an intermediary. This is also called the Transfer

of Technology (TOT).
 "To give advice" or "to advise". This is very similar to TOT.

 "To counsel". In this case extension means working with farmers in

smaller groups and the extentionist is the counselor who "helps" the
farmers. Relationships are essentially based on confidence.
 "To take counsel" or "to deliberate". The aim here is to find new solutions

4 to problems.
Extension terminology and evolving definition …

Extension as a science has wide scope of involvement which is not

limited to information exchange alone.

It includes everywhere information on new technology or

interaction with clientele is mentioned.

Agricultural extension involves exchange knowledge to the end

users, however, on the simplest level;

 Agricultural extension could be defined as voluntary out of

school educational programme for clientele consisting of the


5
relevant contents, principles and procedures.
Extension terminology and evolving definition …

 It also involves dissemination of information on innovation or new

technology to the clientele.


 Agricultural Extension is also regarded as “the body of knowledge

which accumulates experience and research findings with respect


to extension and borrows insights from other disciplines and field
of endeavors which seems pertinent to extension (Rolling, 1997).
Agricultural extension is the application of scientific

research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through


farmer education.
6
Extension terminology and evolving definition …
It has been described as a system of out-of-school

education for rural people.


This process provides farmers information and advices

which help them to solve problems or difficulties facing in


their life.
 Agricultural extension supports to develop production

activities, increase production efficiency and continuously


improve the living quality of farmers and their family.
7
Extension terminology …
 Extension System: it refers to extension organization such as

Ministry of Agriculture system, university Extension system,


NGOs System or private companies extension system.
 Extension Strategy: refers to a chosen course of action (guiding

principles)such as multi-step information flow strategy or


multimedia strategy.
 Extension Methods: refers to educational techniques used by

extension system i.e. personal, group or mass method.


 Extension Approaches: refers to models used by a system.

8
1.3. communication processes within Extension system

Agricultural Extension has two dimensions

(a). Educational dimension (b). Communicational dimension

A). Education Dimension:

it involves the change agent (extension worker) attempting to work on the

clientele’s psychology through the use of effective teaching methods to

improve the knowledge and develop the skill of the clientele (farmer) as

he acquires knowledge on improved practices to enhance has production

and marketing activities (Williams, et al 1981).

The nature of education is for action, problem oriented or centered, hence

9
it is different from the formal education.
Communication processes within Extension system…
 Extension education is the process of teaching rural people how to

live better by learning ways that improve their farm, home and
community institutions – J.P. Leagans (1961).
 Extension education is an applied science consisting of content

derived from research, accumulated field experiences and relevant


principles drawn from the behavioral science synthesized with useful
technology into a body of philosophy, principles, content and methods
focused on the problems of out of school education for adults and
youth.– J.P. Leagans (1961)
 What is the difference b/n Informal Education and Formal Education?

10
Communication processes within Extension system…
Informal Education Formal Education
1. It is an informal education. 1. It is a formal education.
 It has a definite syllabus.
 It has no definite syllabus
 After completing the syllabus,
(curriculum ).
students have to appear in an
 There is no examination, and no
examination and after evaluation;
degree or other certificate is given the degrees and certificates are
to the participating student. awarded to the student.
2. The work of extension education is 2. Institutional Education has a definite
according to the needs of the people programme and do not run according
and availability of resources. to the needs of the student
3. In it, the problems of the people are 3. In it the problems of the student are
solved by the people. solved by the teacher.
4. People involved are of different age 4. Students are of same age and the
and abilities. same qualification.
5. Teaching is according to the interest 5. Here, teaching is according syllabus.
11
of the of the learner.
Communication processes within Extension system…
Informal Education Formal Education
6. The field of extension 6. Its area is limited in the
education being related to institution only.
farms and villages is
unlimited. 7. In it, the students have
7. The rural people learn to learn compulsorily.
with their own desire. 8. The presence of the
student is compulsory.
8. The presence of the rural
people is voluntary. 9. In it, the teacher, only
9. In extension education instruct the student.
the teacher also learns 10. In the institutional
from the learner. education, only the
10. By extension education knowledge of student is
the human behavior is increased.
12
changed.
Communication processes within Extension system…
B). Communication Dimension:
This involves dissemination of information to the clientele on

new technologies or innovation.


It also involves exchange of ideas that could provide basis for

research or feedback on the use of previous innovation.


The methods of communication could be through the use of

individuals, group or mass method.


Therefore, extension is involved in dissemination of useful

13 information through the appropriate methods to the clientele.


1.4. Paradigms of Agricultural Extension
Paradigm is a world view, a general perspective, a
way of breaking down the complexity of the real
world.
 It is the way we see the world not in terms of our
visual sense of sight but in terms of perceiving,
understanding and interpreting (Covy, 1990).
 Agricultural Research and Technology
Development is undergoing a paradigm shift, in
which the environment under which agricultural
research and extension systems are operating is
affecting their;
 organizational structure,
 management style and,
 field operations.
14
Cont.…
Basic trends of these environmental changes are based on multiple

partnerships, multilevel participation and the enlargement of the scene


from national to supra-national levels.
Under these circumstances, both agricultural research and agricultural

extension policies are going obsolete with regard to new options (SDR
2005).
A shift was needed from a single commodity, mono-disciplinary base to

a farming system and a multidisciplinary based approach together with


a change from a top-down extension model to a participatory approach
to technology assessment and adoption.

15 The key features of the paradigm shift are summarized below.
Table . Key features of paradigm shifts in R&D
Characteristics of Conventional Current paradigm for
R@D paradigm for agricultural
agricultural R&D
Driving motive Efficiency: maximize Productivity, achieving
productivity and food and nutritional
profit/return to limited security, poverty
resources; alleviation, ecological
competitiveness
sustainability and
equity

Assumed causes of • Lack of knowledge • Political-economic


problems • Farmers are roots of problems,
irrational neglect of ecology and
farmers' needs (and
knowledge), poor
understanding of
production systems

Institutional relation • Top-down (linear)


and actors
16 technology
development and
Scope of Agricultural Extension
Agricultural Extension is the primary process through which

farmers learn reasons why they must change their attitude


and practice.
Extension work does not only involves taking of research

findings to farmers but it also take the farmer problem to the


researchers and help formulate activities designed to meet the
ever-increasing problems facing rural communities.

17
Paradigms of Agricultural Extension…

Agricultural extension also involves leadership


development in the communities.
This is because it worked with the whole family and

involves a participatory approach where learning by


doing concept is involved.
Hence agricultural extension utilizes leaders from

among the people, in view of this it helps to imbue


principle of leadership in the people.
18
Paradigms of Agricultural Extension…
 Community development is another area which agricultural extension is

involved.
 This is by mobilizing members of the communities to improve their

collective resources when will invariably affect their production systems.


 Youth development is also critical area of Agricultural extension

involved.
 The youth, are encouraged to form themselves to clubs and organizations

so that they can exchange ideas and become useful to themselves and
their communities.
 It is also discourage rural-urban migration and retain labor for

19
agricultural product work.
Scope and uses of Extension Education
Extension education effectively works in the following professional areas :
 Increasing agricultural production

 Increasing irrigation efficiency

 Improvement in marketing of agricultural products

 Conservation of natural resources and their best utilization

 Better standards of families

 Youth development

 Leadership development

 Community development at both urban and rural areas

 Promoting adult education


20
Principles of Agricultural Extension

A. Basic Principles of extension


 Certain basic principles underlie the conduct of agricultural
extension work.

 These principles differ with respect to the kind of community in

which extension education is carried on.

 Extension principles may be defined as guidelines for the conduct of

extension work and these principles are the bedrock upon which

extension service rests.

 The principles are:

21
Basic Principles of extension…

1. Extension should start where the people are. Williams et al., 1984

believed that extension should work at the level where the people are,

that is, at their level of knowledge, understanding, interest and

degree of readiness.

It means personal contact with the local condition, and its environment,

an understanding of the social structure, the habits, traditions, attitude

and economic status of the people and society.

The first principle therefore implies that to succeed with farmers, new

ideas must be related to what the farmer already knows and that with

which he is familiar.
22
Basic Principles of extension…
2. Extension should be based on the needs and interests of the

people; which are closely related to improving their livelihood

through increasing farm production and their physical environment

(Williams et at., 1984).

 It is imperative therefore to conceptualize the basic needs of the

people in the rural set up since the needs and interests of people

vary from one set of people to the other due to difference in culture.

 Extension can only function if these two variables are put into

consideration.
23
Basic Principles of extension…
3. Extension should assist farmers to determine their own problems, help
them to find desirable solutions and to encourage them to take action.
 This assistance does not imply that the extension worker’s problems are

replica of the farmer’s problems and does not indicate that the farmers
cannot think on their own.
 Embarking on this will enable the farmers to have the perception that the

extension worker cares about their problems by assisting them in


identifying their problems.
 In proffering solutions to these problems, the extension worker should not

in any way solve their problems on their behalf as this will amount to
imposing his own value judgment on them.
24
Basic Principles of extension…
4. It is an established fact that human beings have unsatisfied wants, this
assertion is also applicable to the farmers.
An extension worker cannot go far with people unless they want to help

themselves, therefore programmes must start with the felt needs of the
people and proceed to others that are also needed by them.
The wants of the people must be kept in reasonable relationship with the

effort they are capable and willing to make.


All the people within a community do not want the same thing at same time,

and in the same fashion (Obibuaku, 1983).


To this end, their values differ and so do their goals and the ability to

25achieve them.
Basic Principles of extension…
5. The principle of co-operative work must be pursued to logical

conclusion.

 This is so because the best programmes are those determined by the

local people and extension staff working together.

 Planning of programmes with the people is an important part of

extension teaching.

 People understand a programme better and are more likely to support it

if they participate in its creation.

 Planning is also a learning process. By participating in programme

26 planning, people learn to work together.


Basic Principles of extension…
6. Extension workers should work with all members of the
family.
 The family should be regarded as a working unit in the home and

in the field (Williiams et al., 1984).


 Religion, race or political interests should be put aside in working

with rural people, extension worker should treat them as rational


adults who are capable of making their own decisions.

27
Basic Principles of extension…
7. The principle of the use of variety of teaching methods is another
basic principle.
In this case, a teaching method can be conceived in teaching a

segregated learning unit.


 This is equally based on the principle of variety is the spice of life and

that no one method will help to bring out desirable changes in people.
No method therefore is an island.

The implication of this principle is that, the more the variety of ways a

topic is presented and practiced, the quicker the people tend to grasp
the subject matter.
28
Basic Principles of extension…
8 In African rural communities, participation in extension
programme is voluntary and therefore programmes must meet the
varying needs of individuals.
 Participation in extension programmes differ significantly in age,

sex, education, attitudes, interests, needs and economic and social


values.
 Programmes must therefore be attractive and tailored to meet the

needs and interests of the varying groups.

29
Basic Principles of extension…
9. Extension workers should provide maximum opportunity for the people
to work on programmes that have been determined by them and the
extension agent working together.
The joint determination of the programmes is one thing and full

participation is another dimension which is crucial to the eventual


success of such programmes.
 The farmers feel fully satisfied when they are given maximum

opportunity to practice what they participated in building.


The principle of involvement has a sound psychological basis in that

people are never interested in programmes which they have not helped to
30 develop.
Basic Principles of extension…

10. Extension workers should take advantage of any existing local groups to
involve the people in extension programmes.
 The people in rural areas tend to listen more to the local leaders than even the

extension workers since they are power brokers and the inability of the extension
agent to work with them makes it impossible for him to succeed in his
programmes.
 This principle must be strictly adhered to if innovation is to be well adopted by
the local people.
 The existence of these local leaders makes it possible for extension agents to

spread his service over a wide area.


 There are numerous organizations and groups that are in existence in Ethiopia

such as farmers’ co-operative societies or unions, farmer’s kebele administrative

31
councils.
Basic Principles of extension…
11. Subject matter covered in extension must have definite purpose and must be
specific so that programme would be able to achieve the purpose for which it was
established.

 The subject matter here refers to the content of the extension programme, which

must be relevant to the lives of the rural people and must therefore be useful to
them.

 The content of the programme must be presented when it is most needed by the

people.

 The subject matter covered must therefore be attainable within the time available,

and within physical and economic resources of clientele, and within the social
condition and learning ability of the participants.
32
Basic Principles of extension…

12. The principle of constant evaluation must be followed.

 It should appraise periodically its work in the light of existing and changing conditions so that it

can be seen whether the objective are being achieved.

 Extension workers have to make endless decisions and then act according to what they

understand to be the mandates of their decisions.

13. The principle of professionalism should be followed.

 Extension workers should therefore work with extension professionals who can sell their

programmes to their clientele. Credibility is therefore essential here.

 It should provide continuous opportunity and improvement for its staff.

14. Learning is a gradual process and therefore results must not be expected too soon.
 Research evidence has shown that learners must be exposed to new ideas over a period
of time and in variety of ways before they begin to respond to them.
 The adoption rate is therefore to be considered as a gradual process.

33
Basic Principles of extension…

15. Adult learning remains high throughout life. Adults have had years of
varied experience, set beliefs and habits.
Their beliefs and habits tend to change very slowly.

The Extension workers must therefore use all available strategies in taking care

of these beliefs and habits.

16. A closer principle to the one just highlighted is the principle that extension is
educational in function through assisting people to make their own
decisions among various alternatives put before them.
Extension workers should not be involved with supply activities.

The farmers may be expecting the extension agents to supply them with needed

planting materials, fertilizers and fungicides.


34
This is basically contrary to its educational function.
Basic Principles of extension…
17. Extension workers should promote the use and development of volunteer
leaders.
It is through this forum that extension agents can reach many people and educate

them of the need for change.


This principle therefore sees the volunteer leaders as loud speaker for extension.

Without the use of the volunteer leader, most of the planned programmes will not

be achieved.

18. Extension should be based on facts and knowledge.


This principle can be achieved through the process of working closely with the

researchers and the farmer.


Therefore, extension in this regard will be seen as an intermediary or a link

35 between researcher and the farmer.


B. Guiding principles of extension
 Extension activities are widespread throughout the developing world and most

governments have set up formally structured extension services to implement


extension programmes and projects.
 The practice of extension is supported by budget, offices, personnel and other

resources.

i. Extension works with people, not for them


 Only the people themselves can make decisions about the way they will farm or

live and an extension agent does not try to take these decisions for them.
 Rural people can and do make wise decisions about their problems if they are

given full information including possible alternative solutions.


 Extension, therefore, presents facts, helps people to solve problems and

36
encourages farmers to make decisions.
B. Guiding principles of extension…
ii. Extension is accountable to its clients

 Extension services and agents have two sets of masters.

 On the one hand, they are accountable to their senior officers and to the government

departments that determine rural development policies.. Agents are expected to follow

official policies and guidelines in their work.

 On the other hand, extension is the servant of the rural people and it has the responsibility

to fulfill the needs of the people in its area.

 One measure of effectiveness is to see how well policies and plans have been carried out.

 An equally important measure is the extent to which incomes and living standards of the

rural people have increased as a result of extension work.


 Therefore, are based on people's needs, as well as on technical and national economic
needs.


37 The extension agent's task is to bring these needs together.
B. Guiding principles of extension…

iii. Extension is a two-way link


 Extension is not a one-way process in which the extension agent transfers

knowledge and ideas to farmers and their families.


 This two-way flow of ideas can occur at different stages.

 When the problem is being defined. Being in regular contact with the

farmers, the extension agent can help research workers to understand the
farming problems of the area and the limitations under which farmers have
to work.
 When recommendations are being tested in the field. A new farm

practice or crop variety might produce good results at a research station


but not do so well on a farmer's field.
38
B. Guiding principles of extension…
 When farmers put recommendations into practice. Sometimes farmers

discover problems with a recommendation which the research station failed to


note.
 The two-way link between research, extension and the farmer is fundamental

to sound extension practice and should be a basic principle of extension


activity.

iv. Extension cooperates with other rural development organizations


 Within rural areas, extension services and agents should work closely with the

other organizations that provide essential services to farmers and their


families.
 Extension is only one aspect of the many economic, social and political

39 activities that seek to produce change for the better in rural society.
B. Guiding principles of extension…

v. Extension works with different target groups


 Extension recognizes that not all farmers in any one area will have the same

problems.
 Some will have more land than others and will be keen to try out new ideas.

Others, with fewer resources, will probably be more cautious.


 Extension cannot offer a single "package" of advice, suitable to all farmers.

 Different groups need to be identified and the agent will have to develop

programmes appropriate to each group.


 Extension must, therefore, be aware of the existence of different farming groups

and plan its programmes accordingly.


 The smallest and poorest farmers will need particular attention, as they may lack

the basic resources needed to become involved in extension activities.


40
Four elements in agricultural extension process:
1. Knowledge and skill: It provides technical knowledge and trains several
skills to farmers.

2. Technical Advices: It provides farmers with information and technical


advices to help them make decisions and actions.

3. Organization of farmers: Farmers need to have an organization who


represents their interests and right and implements community work. Thus,
extension worker should help to establish them in different groups on the
basis of the same interest, the same objective, etc.

4. Mainspring and belief: Extension worker should come and help farmers,
encourage them to participate in extension programs, make them completely
believe that they can decide and act to improve their livings by themselves.
41
Chapter summary
The main point in this unit includes the following:

1. Agricultural Extension involves extending knowledge to the


clientele.

2. Agricultural Extension involves educational and communicational


dimension.

3. Heterogeneous and Homogenous audience constitutes the


clientele in agricultural extension.

4. Importance of agricultural extension includes increase in farmer’s


level of production, information on strategic marketing and
42 effective feedback on innovation to research/scientist.
Chapter 2: Extension Approaches
2.1. Extension goals

 Goals lead the actions of individuals, groups, and organizations.

 The prominent features of a system, such as its organizational structure, the choice of

clientele, its operational design, and the methods used, are directly influenced by its

set of goals and must be evaluated in terms of their contribution to goal achievement.

1. Technology Transfer

 Until the end of the eighteenth century, farming techniques developed gradually and

steadily over centuries with few qualitative leaps.

 Colonialism and imperial expansion introduced innovations the spread of maize,

tobacco, potatoes are striking examples - but experimentation and dissemination of

knowledge were basically at the local farm level.


43
Extension goals…

 The rise of agricultural sciences has induced dramatic changes in this respect.

 Increasingly, new technology has been created outside the actual farming

sector by public sector research organizations.

 More recently, private firms in industrialized economies find agricultural

technology research and development a highly profitable business.

 For decades the research-extension-farmer linkage, especially in developing

countries, was based on a rather simple model.

2. Human Resource Development

 The concept of human resource development is much broader than that of

technology transfer, though both are closely interrelated.


44
Extension goals…

Increasing complexity not only of technology but also of the life

situation of farmers even in remote areas demands new skills.


With the help of these skills, rural women and men "acquire a better

insight into the network of problems and recognize the alternative


solutions available" (Albrecht et al., 1989, p. 34).
Traditionally, teaching the basic skills of literacy and numeracy has

not been an extension activity.


The limited success of literacy programmes in poor countries has

drawn attention to non formal education in which extension has an

45 important part to play (Coombs and Ahmed, 1974).


2.2.Alternative ways of organizing extension
"The success of an agricultural extension programme tends to be directly related to

the extent to which its approach fits the programme goals for which it was
established“.

The alternatives to organizing extension demand choices on various levels:


Public versus private

Government versus nongovernment

Top-down (bureaucratic) versus bottom-up (participatory)

Profit versus nonprofit

Free versus cost-recovery

General versus sector

Multipurpose versus single purpose

46
 Technology driven versus need oriented
Types of Extension Approaches

No single extension approach can be promoted


as more appropriate than the other.
 Each has certain advantages & disadvantages
depending on the problem to be solved.
 In actual practice, any agricultural extension
system, at a particular time, will emphasize one
approach or another but it will usually have
some characteristics of other types.
Thus the approach is the starting place for a
particular style of action, not the ending place.
 It is the essential ideology, which differentiates
that particular approach from the other.
47
Types of extension approaches
 There are eight different approaches to agricultural
extension. These are:

1. The General agricultural extension approach


2. The Commodity specialized agricultural extension
approach
3. The Educational institution based agricultural extension
approach
4. The Project based agricultural extension approach
5. The Train & Visit agricultural extension approach
6. The Farming Systems Research agricultural extension
approach
7. The Cost sharing agricultural extension approach.
48
8. The Participatory agricultural extension approach
1.The General Agricultural Extension Approach

It is the most common extension approach in the world. It


is found in government organization responsible for
agricultural development in almost every country.
The key factor that distinguishes this approach from the
others is its identification with broad agricultural & rural
development goals.
This is reflected on its general focus on the entire farm &
home improvement.,
 I.e. it embraces the general improvement of the farm
family. So, such programs as;
 farm management,
 home economics,
 rural youth work,
 soil conservation, etc. are included under it.
49
2. The Commodity Specialized Approach

Institutions & persons concerned with one particular crop or


commodity have sometimes become impatient with the
general agricultural extension approach, and have organized
an approach which is highly specialized. This approach tends
to focus on one export crop such as coffee, sugar, tobacco,
cotton or rubber.

Because a parastatal’s (commodity) aim is to increase


productivity & production of the commodity of interest, it
normally carries out support functions such as research,
input supply, & output marketing.

These commodities are generally produced for export, as they


generate foreign exchange. Successful systems encourage
farmer participation by profit sharing which increases farm
income & by continuing to reinvest in technology development
50
& transfer, thus ensuring continued improvement
3. The Educational Institution Extension Approach

This involves participation by agricultural schools,


colleges & universities in agricultural extension
activities.
 For these institutions, agricultural extension is not
typically their major role.
It is an adjunct which improves the quality &
relevance of everything else they do, and also
supports other agricultural extension institutions for
which agricultural extension ‘role’ is the major role.
Colleges or schools of agriculture have technical
knowledge which is relevant & useful to farm people.
And teaching staff need interaction with ‘real
farmers’ in order to be good teachers of agriculture.
51
4. Project Approach

It assumes that the large government bureaucracy


featured in some other approaches is not likely to have
impact up on agricultural production & that better results
can be achieved in a particular
 location,
 during specified period of time,
 with large infusion of outside resources.
The project operates within a specified time frame &
therefore its continuity is not anticipated.
However, sometimes it is assumed that successful
methods & techniques demonstrated inside the ‘project’
will later be replicated in other locations.
Usually, the project operates within a particular time period
& is also confined to limited location.
52
5. Training and visit(T @ v) extension approach

The T & V system of extension has been widely adopted in


many countries. One reason for the rapid spread of the
system has been the impressive increase in agricultural
production that have been associated with its introduction
especially in irrigated agriculture such as India etc…
It was developed into a coherent system only in the mid-
1970s. The principles underlying the system are basically
simple & can be widely applied in different situation.
the essential features are: Continuous training & regular,
fixed visits by staff solely occupied with agricultural
extension, in built supervision, continuous upgrading of
staff, monitoring & evaluation of all extension activities
and minimal office & paper work must be closely followed
everywhere
53
6. Farming system Research(FSR) approach
Problem solving in that FSR teams seek researchable
problems and opportunities to guide research & to
identify ways for making local services and national
policies more attuned to the farmers needs.

Comprehensive because FSR team consider the whole


farming activity (consumption as well as production to
learn how to improve the farmers output & welfare, to
identify the flexibility for change in the environment &
to evaluate the results in terms of both farmers &
society’s interests.
 Interdisciplinary:
 Complementary:
 Dynamic

54
Responsible:
7. The cost sharing approach

 It is an extension approach where the cost of


agricultural extension is supposed to be shared between the
clients & agricultural extension system.

an extension system is more likely to achieve its goal if those


who benefit from it share same part of the cost.

the program is more likely to fit local situations and


personnel are more likely to serve the interests of the
clientele of the program if the costs are shared between the
‘outside’ sponsors of the program & the ‘inside’ target groups
for the program.

It also assumes that farm people are too poor to pay the
whole cost. So, central and regional government typically
55 provides most of it.
8. Participatory approaches in extension
Participation of the people involved in development

programs is often seen as a way to make these programs


more successful specially for solving problems of poor
people.
Farming people have much wisdom regarding production of

food from their land, but their levels of living & productivity
could be improved by learning more of what is known
outside.
 There is an indigenous knowledge system and while it is

different from ‘scientific knowledge system’ there is much


56 to be gained by the interaction of the two.
2.3. Present and future role of extension staff
 Person-to-person communication has traditionally been the most important

form of information transfer.


 Print media as well as radio and TV were of a supplementary nature because

they frequently lacked a target group or location specificity and information


was not up-to-date.
 Revolutionary changes in communication technology have dramatically

increased the speed and quality of information transfer and changed the role
of extension workers in industrialized countries.
 Electronic communications systems may in part replace personal visits, and

one of the major tasks of any agent will be to link her or his clients with other
suppliers of information.

57
Present and future role of extension staff…
 Fieldwork in most developing countries is characterized by conditions that

foster low morale: lack of mobility, virtually no equipment, and extremely


low salaries.
 Quality performance is further impeded by low educational qualifications

and lack of advancement possibilities (Swanson, Farner, & Bahal, 1990).


 While working conditions of extension personnel have deteriorated,

expectations with regard to their role are increasing.


 They are no longer to be simply transmitters of technical knowledge.

 They are to practice participatory methods, recognize and respect gender

issues, identify indigenous needs and problem solutions, and serve as a link
to the world outside the village, to name but a few of the present topics.
58
Chapter 3: Extension Strategies
3.1. Definition
Extension Education involves voluntary participation based on farmer’s

volition and willingness.


Willingness is predicated on the judgment of the worthiness and or interest in

the improved practices or innovation.


In extension programme there is no coercion, it is based on the interest of the

participants.
 In formal education there is a high level of compulsion and set standards that

must be fulfilled.
In Agricultural extension the teaching is informal due to the heterogeneous

audience and the fact that the education process takes place in clientele’s place
59
Definition…
 Today ,strategy is used in business to describe the steps taken by the

organization to achieve its mission and objectives.


 It is also adapted as immense tool to good management in the public and

NGOs.
 A natural way of doing business

 According to George Steiner:

 that which top management does that is of great importance to the

organization;
 refers to basic directional decisions, that is , purposes and missions;

 consists of the important actions necessary to realize these directions; answers

the question: what are the ends we seek and how should we achieve them;

60
Definition…
What is Strategic planning?

Strategic planning is the process by which the guiding members of

an organization and its stakeholders envision its future and develops


the necessary procedures and operations to achieve that future.
Strategic planning is the process of determining what an
organization intends to be in the future and how it will get there.
It is finding the best future for your organization and the best path to

reach that destination.


SP requires an organization to be flexible and to plan for maximum

impact, in a fast –changing environment.


61
3.2.1. Extension Objectives
 To raise the standard of living of the rural people by helping them in right use of

their resources.

 To help in planning and implementing the family and village plans for increasing

production in various occupations.

 To provide facilities for better family living.

Specific Objectives

 To provide knowledge and help for better management of farms and increase

incomes.

 To encourage the farmers to grow his own food, eat well and live well.

 To promote better social, natural recreational intellectual and spiritual file among

the people.
Extension Objectives…

 To help rural families in better appreciation of SWOT in the village.

 To open new opportunities for developing talents and leadership of rural people.

 To build rural citizens who are:

 Proud of their occupation

 Independent in thinking.

 Constructive in outlook.

 capable, efficient and self-reliant in character

 having love of home and country m their heart

 Objective Analysis clarifies the means-ends relationship between the desirable

situation that would be attained one problems have been solved.

 This stage also requires an Objective Tree.


3.2.2. Identification of Strategies
 Is a set of techniques to describe the future situation that will be achieved

by solving the problems


 Identify potential alternatives for the Strategy

 Steps

 Step 1: Restate all negative conditions of the problem tree into positive

conditions that are: Desirable, Realistic and achievable


 Step 2: Examine “means-ends” relationship thus delivered to assure

validity and completeness of your diagram


 Step 3: Revise the statement, add new objectives if appeared to be

relevant, delete objectives which do not seem relevant(If necessary ).

64
3.2.3. Selecting Appropriate Extension Method

 Before selecting a teaching method, the following points may be

considered;

1. No single method is better than another; therefore the extension


worker should choose the techniques best suited to the situation

2. Use a number of teaching methods in program.


 It is evident that new information can be passed on to an individual

learner by using a variety of ways.

3. when two methods are utilized, they reinforce the information


contained in the demonstration.

4.
65 Use visual aids and written material where required.
Chapter 4: Diffusion and Adoption of Innovation

4.1. Definition
 According to Rogers (1995) Adoption process is a mental process

through which an individual passes from hearing about an innovation


to final adoption.
 The adoption of a practice is not a unit act and instantaneous/

immediate.
 The farmer’s decision to accept or reject adoption of science based

production technology consists of several stages and involves sequence


of thoughts and decisions.
 An innovation is an idea, practice, or object perceived as new by an

individual or other unit of adoption.


4.2. Innovation and diffusion of Innovation
 The technologies, practices developed through research are innovations.

 These may be new varieties of crops and plants, new breeds of livestock or

fish species, new chemicals and medicines, new technique of doing thing

etc.

 Farmers themselves may develop some new practices, which are also

innovations.

 Irrespective of the time period the idea or practice was originally developed,

when a person first become aware of it, it is an innovation to that person.

 There are two categories of innovation/technologies namely: material and

67
knowledge based technology
Innovation and diffusion of Innovation…

I. Knowledge Based Technology


 Within the context of knowledge based technology, "adoption" refers

to the stage in which a technology is selected for use by an individual


or an organization.
 "Innovation" is similarly used with the nuance/degree of a new or

"innovative" technology being adopted.


 "Diffusion" refers to the stage in which the technology spreads to

general use and application.


 "Integration" connotes a sense of acceptance, and perhaps
transparency, within the user environment.
68
Innovation and diffusion of Innovation…

II Materials Innovation Technologies


 This develops innovative technical solutions for the manufacture of

complex-shaped performance composite parts.


 It advances materials such as carbon fiber, armed fibers, fiber glass,

natural fibers, and hybrids, along with proprietary manufacturing


processes to successfully develop solutions for the emerging
technology needs of the Aerospace, Automotive, Defense, Mass
Transit, and Recreational Sporting Goods markets, just to name a few.
 We offer extensive knowledge in product development and
commercialization.
69
Differentiation Between Diffusion and Adoption
 Diffusion is a social process while adoption is a mental and is

individual process.
 Diffusion and adoption are thus closely interrelated concepts and

processes.

Generally;
 The spread of an innovation within a social system is called

diffusion and adoption is a decision to make full use of an


innovation as the best course of action available.
 An innovations is essentially a new technology or idea of doing

something.
Diffusion
 Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated

through certain channels over time among the members of a social


system.
 There are four elements in diffusion process.

1. The innovation

2. Communication channels

3. Time

4. The social system (context)

71
Diffusion …
1. The innovation:-
 Why do certain innovations spread more quickly than others?

 The characteristics which determine an innovation's rate of adoption

are:

1. Relative advantage

2. Compatibility

3. Complexity

4. Trial ability

5. Observability to those people within the social system.

72
Diffusion …
2. Communication
 Communication is the process by which participants create and share

information with one another in order to reach a mutual understanding.


 A communication channel is the means by which messages get from

one individual to another.


 Mass media channels are more effective in creating knowledge of

innovations, whereas interpersonal channels are more effective in


forming and changing attitudes toward a new idea, and thus in
influencing the decision to adopt or reject a new idea.
Diffusion …
 Most individuals evaluate an innovation, not on the basis of scientific
research by experts, but through the subjective evaluations of near-peers
who have adopted the innovation.

3. Time
 The time dimension is involved in diffusion in three ways.

I. First, innovation-decision process.


 The innovation decision process is the mental process through which an

individual (or other decision making unit) passes from first knowledge
of an innovation to forming an attitude toward the innovation, to a
decision to adopt or reject, to implementation of the new idea, and to
confirmation of this decision.
Diffusion …
The innovation decision process follow 5-Step:

1. Knowledge – person becomes aware of an innovation and has


some idea of how it functions

2. Persuasion – person forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude


toward the innovation

3. Decision – person engages in activities that lead to a choice to


adopt or reject the innovation

4. Implementation – person puts an innovation into use

5. Confirmation – person evaluates the results of an innovation-


75 decision already made
Diffusion …
II. The second way in which time is involved in diffusion is in the
innovativeness of an individual or other unit of adoption.
 Innovativeness is the degree to which an individual or other unit of

adoption is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than other members


of a social system.
 There are five adopter categories, or classifications of the members of a

social system on the basis on their innovativeness:

III. The third way in which time is involved in diffusion is in rate of


adoption.
 The rate of adoption is the relative speed with which an innovation is

adopted by members of a social system.


Diffusion …
 The rate of adoption is usually measured as the number of members of

the system that adopt the innovation in a given time period.

4. The social system


 The fourth main element in the diffusion of new ideas is the social

system.
 Social System: It is a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint

problem solving to accomplish a common goal.

Components of a Social System

1. Structure: It is patterned arrangement of the units.

77
Diffusion …
2. Norms: These are the established behavior patterns. Opinion leaders
exhibit the norms.
 The members or units of a social system may be individuals, informal

groups organizations, and/or subsystems.


 The social system constitutes a boundary within which an innovation

diffuses.
 Norms are the established behavior patterns for the members of a

social system.

78
4.3. Process of Adoption
 The decision to adopt an innovation, involves a process composed of

learning, deciding, and acting over a period of time.


 The adoption process, as a decision-making process goes through a

number of mental stages before making a final decision to adopt an


innovation.
 Decision - making is a process comprising a sequence of stages with a

distinct type of activity occurring during each stage.


 The way in which an individual adopts an innovation involves the

following five steps namely Awareness stage, Interest stage,


Evaluation stage, Trial stage and Adoption stage (AIETA).
79
Process of Adoption…
a) Awareness or Knowledge Stage

 This is the starting stage wherein the farmer comes to know the existence of the

new idea but he doesn’t have full information about the idea.

 At this stage farmer is aware of the idea, but lacks detailed information about it.

b) Interest /Persuasion Stage

 The farmer develops interest in the innovation and seeks additional information

about it either from extension officer or from fellow farmers or from any source,

which he feels credible.

 That means the farmer acquires more information about an innovation or idea by

wanting to know what the innovation/idea is, how it works and what its

potentialities are.
Process of Adoption…

c) Evaluation or Decision Stage


 At the evaluation stage, the farmer makes mental application of the

new idea in the present and anticipated future situations and decides
whether or not to try it.
 He/she judges the utility of the innovation, makes an assessment

whether the idea is applicable to own situation and if applied what


would be the result.

d) Trial or Implementation Stage


 The farmers may not take up any new idea and an innovation right

away on a large scale because he/she doesn’t want to take risk even
though the potential of the idea has been proved.
Process of Adoption…
 The new idea is applied on a small scale in order to determine its utility or

feasibility and applicability in own situation.

e) Adoption or Confirmation Stages


 Being satisfied with the performance of the new idea tested on small scale

in his own situation, the farmer uses the new idea continuously on a full
scale.
 Trial may be considered as the practical evaluation of an innovation.

 The innovation becomes a part of his normal farming activity.

 It provides the advantage of the innovation and hence the farmer takes

final decision and applies the innovation in a scale appropriate to own


situation on a continued basis.
Process of Adoption…

Generally;
 Adoption of innovation as a process composed of learning, deciding

and acting over a period of time.


 The adoption of a specific practice is not the result of a single decision

to act but series of actions and thought decisions.

83
4.4. Characteristics of Social system of Adoption
 Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated

through certain channels over time among the members of a social


system.
 Diffusion is a special type of communication concerned with the

spread of messages that are perceived as new ideas.


 An innovation, simply put, is “an idea perceived as new by the

individual.”
 An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new

by an individual or other unit of adoption.


 The characteristics of an innovation, as perceived by the members of a
84
social system, determine its rate of adoption.
Characteristics of social system of Adoption…

Characteristics of Innovation
There are five perceived attributes of innovations in universal

terms.

1. Relative Advantage:
It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being

better than the idea it supersedes.


It is positively related to its rate of adoption.

85
Characteristics of social system of Adoption …
2. Compatibility:

 It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with

the existing values, past experiences, and the need of potential adopter.

 The compatibility of an innovation as perceived by members of a

social system is positively related to its rate of adoption.

 Eating food with left hand lack compatibility with social norm as left

hand is considered to be unclean.

 Piggery is a profitable enterprise but it is not adopted by Brahmins and

Muslims as it is not compatible with their culture.


86
Characteristics of social system of Adoption …

3. Complexity:
It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as

relatively difficult to understand and use.


The complexity of an innovation as perceived by members of a

social system is negatively related to its rate of adoption.


 For example, change in variety of a particular crop is not that

complex as change in total enterprise (e.g. shifting from crop


production to poultry production).
Characteristics of social system of Adoption …

4. Trialability:
 It is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented

with on a limited basis.


For example, new seeds or fertilizers can be tried on a small

scale, but new machinery or a thing like cow dung gas plant
can not be so tried.
The trial ability of an innovation as perceived by social system

is positively related to its rate of adoption.


Characteristics of social system of Adoption …

5. Observability:
 It is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to

others.
 The observability of an innovation as perceived by members of a

social system is positively related to its rate of adoption.


 For example, the results of some practices like application of

nitrogenous fertilizers to the plants are easily observed while the


results of some innovations like treatments of seeds and soil
conservation measures are not easily observed.
 Technologies which are lacking in these traits take more time to be

89 adopted by the members of a social system.


4.5. Adopter Categories

Adopter categories are the classifications of members of a

social system on the basis of innovativeness, the degree to

which an individual or other unit of adoption is relatively

earlier in adopting new ideas than other members of a system.

Rogers (1983) has suggested following standard set of adopter

categories that is widely followed today.

90
Adopter Categories…
1. Innovators:
 Innovators are also known as ‘venturesome’. Venture sameness is the salient

value of the innovator.


 Innovators are very eager to try new idea.

 They have more cosmopolite social relationship.

 They have ability to understand and apply complex technical knowledge.

 They have ability to cope with high degree of uncertainty about an

innovation.
 They are risky, hazardous and daring in nature.

 They play entrance keeping role in the social system.

 There are 2.5 percent innovators in a social system.


Adopter Categories…

2. Early Adopters:
 Early Adopters are also known as ‘respectable’.

 They are localities and have opinion leadership.

 Members of the social system consider them as “the individual to

check with” before using a new idea.


 Change agents consider them as “local missionary”.

 They hold “central position” in the communication structure of the

system and are respected by peers.


 There are 13.5 percent Early Adopters in a social system.

92
Adopter Categories…

3. Early Majority:
 Early Majority are also known as ‘deliberate’.

 They adopt new ideas just before the average member of a social

system.
 They seldom hold leadership position.

 They provide “interconnectedness” in the system’s networks.

 Motto of early majority is- “Be not the first by which the new is

tried, nor the last to lay the old aside”.


 There are 34 percent Early Majority in a social system.

93
Adopter Categories…

4. Late Majority:
 Late Majority are also known as ‘skeptical’/ unconvinced

 They adopt new ideas just after the average member of a social

system.
 They adopt an innovation when they feel that it is safe to adopt.

 There are 34 percent Late Majority in a social system.

94
Adopter Categories…

5. Laggards:
Laggards are also known as ‘traditional’. They are the last in a

social system to adopt an innovation.


They are the most localities and isolates.

They possess almost no opinion leadership. The point of

reference for the laggards is the past.


They interact with people having traditional values. They are

suspicious of innovations and change agents.


There are 16 percent Laggards in a social system.
Adopter Categories…
Categorization of Adopters of Innovation

96
Categorization of Adopters of Innovation
Chapter 5: Extension and Extension Education

5.1. Extension and Government policy

 Roles and functions of agricultural extension organizations are related with

the goals they have to achieve.

 Agricultural extension is one of the policy instruments which a government

usually uses to stimulate agricultural development.

 Agricultural systems have six functional components:

1. Production refers to the physical tasks involved in cultivating crops and

raising livestock.

2. Supply and credit are concerned with obtaining the physical inputs.

3.
97
Marketing is concerned with the storage transport and sale of output.
Extension and Government policy…

4. Research aims to discover new facts about agriculture.

5. Extension aims to transfer of this knowledge to producer.

6. Regulation is concerned with the allocation of resources such as

land and water, with agricultural rules, quality control and so on.

 All the six functional components stated above are to be linked

closely for achieving self sufficiency in agricultural produce in a

country in which agricultural extension plays a pivotal role.


98
Extension and Government policy…
 Agricultural extension organizations supervised by ministries of

Agriculture have to play the following roles.

1. Policy formulation for increasing agricultural and animal produce.

2. Regulation: make and implement rules regarding inputs supply,


marketing, check adulteration and credit etc.

3. Coordination:-establishing links with sister organizations to achieve


common goals of development.

4. Strengthening linkages with research and farmers: extension


works as a bridge between agricultural research and farmers i.e.
 it takes research results to farmers and conveys farmers’ problems
back to the research organizations for solution.
Extension and Government policy…
5. Human resource development: it imparts training to farmers, women
and youth in different disciplines to promote agriculture through skill
development.

6. Improvement in marketing system: extension organizations try to help


farmers to get appropriate price for their produce for which necessary help
in marketing their produce is provided.
 Farm to market roads, cold storage, credit for transport etc. are some areas

in which extension helps the farmers to get these facilities from the
concerned departments.

7. Farmers’ exchange programs: agricultural extension sponsors farmers’


exchange programs i.e. they spend farmers to and invite farmers from
other areas for learning experiences within the country and outside the
Extension and Government policy…
8. Constitution of advisory committees: advisory committees at local,
provincial and country level are organized by extension organizations
that formulate policies and advise government on different issues.

9. Special campaigns: extension organizations conduct special


campaigns to combat problems like outbreak of insect pests and
diseases on crops.
 They issue instructions to farmers to improve agriculture in odd

circumstances.

10. Preparation of crop Estimates: - agricultural extension


organizations are responsible for preparing crop estimates and fix
targets for crop production.
5.2. Objectives of Extension Organization

The goal of extension organizations in general includes:


 The transfer of knowledge from agricultural research to the farmers.

 Advising farmers on the decisions they have to make, sometimes

recommending a certain decision to be taken, sometimes by helping them


to acquire sufficient insight into the consequences of the alternatives from
which they can be choose and make their own decisions.
 Education- helping farmers through training programs to make decisions

such a way that they are able to make similar decisions themselves in the
future.
 Stimulating desirable agricultural development.


10 Helping farmers’ to establish farmers’ organizations and cooperative.
2
5.3. The role of Agricultural Extension Services in the AKIS
 AKS (Agricultural Knowledge System): a collection of actors, such as

researchers, advisors and educators, working primarily in agricultural knowledge


institutes.
 The emphasis is on these actors and the role of formal knowledge production in

national agricultural research systems (NARS).


 This knowledge is then transferred to the agricultural sector through agricultural

extension services and education (Rudman, 2010).


 AKIS original formulation described “a set of agricultural organizations and/or

persons, and the links and interactions between them, engaged in the generation,
transformation, transmission, storage, retrieval, integration, diffusion and
utilization of knowledge and information, with the purpose of working
synergistically to support decision making, problem solving and innovation in
agriculture” (Roling and Engel, 1991).
The role of Agricultural Extension Services in the AKIS…
 This concept develops the notion of AKS, emphasizing the process of

knowledge generation and includes actors outside the research, education and
advice sectors.
 AIS (Agricultural Innovation Systems): defined as ‘a network of
organizations, enterprises, and individuals focused on bringing new products,
new processes, and new forms of organization into economic use, together
with the institutions and policies that affect the way different agents interact,
share, access, exchange and use knowledge’ (Leeuwis and Ban, 2004).
 Role of Extension Worker: The role of extension worker while living among

rural people is to bring necessary change in individual and collective


behaviour and motivating them.
The role of Agricultural Extension Services in the AKIS…

 For this, extension worker is required to have knowledge about psychological

factors, extension related training and technological knowledge.


 In performing his duties an extension worker has to perform work enumerated:

1. To create motivation and feeling–By motivating rural people for the


development of programmes so that they themselves may become anxious to
improve their standard of living and make new programmes and implement them
for their up liftmen.

2. Knowledge of local felt need–Development programme should be based upon


local felt needs. For this extension worker should be aware of requirements and
problems of local people.

3. Precedence of instant needs–In preparing programme, precedence should be


given to those works which fulfill instant requirement of people.
The role of Agricultural Extension Services in the AKIS…

4. To create self- belief in rural people- Till now rural people has no faith upon their own
power.
 They still depend on government assistance for the development work.

 So, it is important to make them understand or convince them that they can do most of

the work through mutual cooperation.

5. Emphasis on self dependence: - Their needs like food, clothing and housing, were
fulfilled in villages itself, but now they have to go outside to fulfill their basic needs and
still they are unable to earn enough for themselves.
 Therefore, it is necessary to bring change in this situation and to teach lesson of self-

independence to the villagers.

6. To develop the close relations between research centre and agricultural farm– A
close coordination is to be developed between research centre and agricultural farm.
 So that scientific information can be given to the farmers and their problems can be
10
6 addressed to the scientific institution for solution.
The role of Agricultural Extension Services in the AKIS…

7. Full use of present local resources–In order to enhance the extension work and rural
industries like agriculture and cottage industries, it is necessary to efficiently utilities the
available local resources so that people can become self-dependent.

8. Plan for all-round development–Extension worker should organize social, economic


and educational development programmes for all round development of the society.

9. Reconstruction of village–Work should be done for the development of education,


health, transportation, electricity, water etc in villages, so as to encourage educated
people to stay in villages.
 Arrangement should be made for providing security to the people in villages.

10. Change in social attitude– Selfishness is increasing day by day and it is harmful for
the society and the country.
 “Extension worker should try to bring change in this mental attitude of people so that

they can sacrifice their selfishness for the welfare of the society and country and may
become partners in the reconstruction of the country.
Group Assignment (10%)
G1. Sustainable agriculture and its elements

G2. Alternative ways of organizing agricultural research system

G3. Agricultural research and the poor

G4. Diffusion of agricultural technologies

G5. Transfer of knowledge and skills; agricultural extension service

G6. Adoption of agricultural technologies

G7. Agricultural in economic development

G8. Modern organic farms; Implications for developing countries.

G9. Rural non-farm economy

G10. Population growth and food supplies

Reference: Agricultural Development theory, policy and practice(By Dr. Dejene


Aredo).
5.4. Models of Research-Extension Linkage
From “transfer of technology” to “participatory extension”

 This understanding of “extension” is much broader than that originally implied by the English

term “extension”, which involved spreading information, technologies, innovations or

instructions to farmers.

 This earlier meaning of the word “extension” is tied to an understanding of extension as

“transfer of technology”.

 The assumption was that scientists develop a package of seeds and inputs such as fertilizer and

pesticides. This package is then delivered to farmers along with a set of recommendations.

 The most famous extension approach following a transfer of technology approach is the

“Training & Visit” (T&V) system, which was the main vehicle for rolling out the “Green

Revolution” during the 1960s.

 In the T&V system an advisor or extensions visits a group of farmers at regular intervals and

instructs them how to apply the set of technologies.


Models of Research-Extension Linkage….

 The main strength of T&V is the simplicity of the messages

conveyed, regular interaction between extensions and farmers, the


group approach, and therefore the impressive outreach in terms of
number of farmers.
5.5. Extension education
Important Concepts of Extension Education

1. Extension - The word extension is mostly used for Extension Education.

2. The basic concept of Extension is that it is Education - Means production of desirable


change in human behaviour, which includes knowledge, attitude and skill.

3. Extension Work - It means the whole structure of Extension work. It includes the process
of Extension Education i.e. the process of teaching and learning.
 Besides the process, in extension work are included organizations, administration,
supervision, finances as well as the programs for the overall development.

4. Extension Service - It means an organization and/or a programme for the welfare and
development, which employs the extension educational process for the implementation of
programme.
 It is thus same as that of extension work except that in extension service there has been

greater emphasis on service.


Extension education…
5. Extension Job - The job of extension in agriculture and home science is to
assist people engaged in farming and home-making to utilize their own
resources more effectively and those that are available to them, in solving the
current problems and in meeting the changing economic and social conditions.

6. Extension Educational Process - The extension process is working with the


people with their immediate needs and interests, which can make available
additional occupation, make improvement in the socio-economic status, better
home-management and expedite welfare of the rural people.
Extension education…
7. Methods of Education - Education must be conceived as a lifelong learning process. Human
beings learn mainly by three methods; (a) Through informal education; (b) formal education;
and (c) non-formal education.
 Informal Education - It is the never-ending process by which an individual learns through

daily experiences and exposure to environment at home - at work, from friends, radio,
television, papers and books etc.
 Formal Education - It is institutionalized, chronologically graded and well-structured system of

education, which starts from schooling to the higher education.


 Non-Formal Education - It has been a well-organized, systematic educational activity that is

carried on outside formal educational system in order to provide certain selected type of learning
to the selected group of individuals which include adults, young as well as the children.
 Training has been provided on skill development of various aspects, which may help in
generation of employment.
 Farmwomen clubs, self-help groups, Home Science activities such as health, nutrition,
childcare, sanitation and fruit and vegetable preservation etc.
Extension education…
8. Technology assessment for sustainable agriculture and rural development is defined here
as a comprehensive approach to examine the actual or potential impact of technology
applications on certain sustainability issues and second order consequences and to
facilitate the development and use of technological interventions according to location-
specific constraints and objectives.

9. Technology transfer was taken to mean a system under which various inter-related
components of technology, namely, “hardware” (materials such as a variety), “software”
(technique, know-how, information), human ware (human ability), “organ-ware”
(organizational, management aspects) and the final product (including marketing) are
rendered accessible to the end-users (farmers).

10. Appropriate technology: Appropriate technology refers to a technology package, which


must be technically feasible, economically viable, socially acceptable, environment-
friendly, consistent with household endowments, and relevant to the needs of farmers.
Technologies are subject to adjustment, change and evolution.
Extension education…
11. Sustainability: The underlying definition is the one adopted by
the FAO in 1988, sustainable development is the management and
conservation of the natural resource base, and the orientation of
technological and institutional change in such a manner as to ensure
the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for
present and future generations.
 Such sustainable development (in the agriculture, forestry, animal

and fisheries sectors) conserve land, water, plant and animal genetic
resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically
appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable.
Extension education…
 Characteristics of Extension Education: Extension Education is- co-operative

in nature, Broader in scope, Informal in nature, Flexible in order to meet the


needs, Primarily concerned with teaching its clientele, Voluntary in participation,
and Family centered,
 Scope of Extension Education: Extension work will speed up only when the

development of factors related to it i.e.


 To inculcate self-confidence, self-dependence and desire to work themselves

among rural people.


Extension education…
a. Personal development of people:
 Increase in agricultural production so that standard of living can be

raised.
 Facility for rural industry related knowledge.

 Facility for advance techniques/methods.

 Development of co-industries like animal husbandry, poultry, goats

and piggery farming etc.


 Training the people for development of agriculture and rural

industry.
 Proper educational facilities for rural people.
Extension education…
b. Development of environment of people:
 Arrangement of family-education.

 Eradication of prevalent social evils.

 Development of democratic ways.

 Maximum use of available resources for community work.

 Management of rural hygiene and environment.

c. Development of basic institutions:


 To develop confidence and respect for these institutions.

 To develop feeling of responsibility among the people.

 To increase cooperation of maximum number of people.


Chapter Summary
 Extension teaching: meaning, definition and steps

 What is extension teaching?

 Extension teaching is a process of creating situations that facilitate the

learning process.
 Creating situation includes providing activities, materials, and guidance

needed by the learner.


 In other words, arranging situation in which the things to be learnt are

brought to the attention of the learners, their interest is developed, desire


aroused, conviction created, action promoted and satisfaction ensured.
 The ultimate purpose of teaching is not merely to inform people but to

transform them to bring about the desired change in their behaviour.


Chapter Summary
 Steps in extension

 Extension teaching is a planned and deliberate act on the part of the

extension agent.
 The extension agent has to move step by step in a scientific way to

impart training to the clients who are farmers, farm women, and
rural youth.
 The role of the extension agent is that of a facilitator and motivator.

 Though details of the procedure may vary from situation to

situation, there are some steps which are basic to extension


teaching.
 These are presented below as suggested by Wilson and Gallup
Chapter Summary…
Step 1: Attention: The first task as an extension and development professional is to
attract the attention of people to new and better ideas for development.
 People are to be made aware until their attention is focused on the desirable

development change.
 Therefore, attention is the starting point to arousal of the interest.

 Research findings suggest that the attention of people is attracted by various

senses in the following proportions (Reddy, 1998):


 Seeing - 87.0%
 Hearing - 7.0%
 Smell - 3.5 %
 Touch - 1.5 %
 Taste - 1 .0 %,

 The famous extension saying is, 'seeing is believing'. Thus, seeing and hearing are

the major senses involved to attract attention and increase learning.


Chapter Summary…
 Step2: Interest: Once attention is captured, extension and development

professionals can bring the audience's attention to developmental needs


and arouse their interest in further consideration of ideas.
 Extension and development professionals should make them understand

how development contributes to the overall wellbeing of the total


community.
 Step3: Desire: It concerns about the continuation of the audience's interest

in the developmental ideas or better practices, until that interest becomes a


desire, or, a motivating force.
Chapter Summary…
 Step4: Conviction: In this step, people know what action is necessary and just how to

take that action.


 The extension worker also makes sure that people visualize the action in terms of their

own situation and acquire confidence in their own ability to participate in the people-
centered developmental initiatives.
 Step5: Action: Unless this conviction is converted into action, the efforts of extension

for development will go unrewarded.


 It is the job of extension and development agents to make it easy for the people to act.

 For example, if the adoption of a new high yielding maize variety is the action needed

by farmers, that variety should be available within the reach of farming communities
along with other recommended package of practices. If the action does not quickly
follow desire and conviction, the new idea may fade away. Therefore, this phase
should never be ignored.
Chapter Summary…
Step6: Satisfaction: Satisfaction is the end product of extension
teaching process.
 Follow up by extension and development workers helps people to

learn and evaluate the development progress.

Chapter Six

Extension Methods and Methods of influencing human


behavior
6.1. Classification of Extension Methods
 The extension-teaching methods are the tools & techniques used to

create situations in which communication can take place between


the rural people & the extension workers.
 They are the methods of extending new knowledge & skills to the

rural people by drawing their attention towards them, arousing their


interest & helping them to have a successful experience of the new
practice.
 A proper understanding of these methods & their selection for a

particular type of work are necessary.

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6.1.1. According to use

 One way of classifying the extension methods is according to their use &

nature of contact.
 In other words, whether they are used for contacting people individually,

in groups or in masses.
 Based upon the nature of contact, they are divided into individual, group

& mass- contact methods.

1. Individual-contact method-
 Extension methods under this category provide opportunities for face-to-

face or person-to-person contact between the rural people & the extension
workers.
 These methods are very effective in teaching new skills & creating good

will between farmers & the extension workers.


According to use…

2. Group-contact methods-
 Under this category, the rural people or farmers are contacted in a group

which usually consists of 20 to 25 persons.


 These groups are usually formed around a common interest.

 These methods also involve a face-to-face contact with the people &

provide an opportunity for the exchange of ideas, for discussions on


problems & technical recommendations & finally for deciding the future
course of action.

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According to use…

3. Mass or community-contact method –


 An extension worker has to approach a large number of people for

disseminating a new information & helping them to use it. this can be
done through mass-contact methods conveniently.
 These methods are more useful for making people aware of the new

agricultural technology quickly.

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According to use…

Important extension-teaching methods under these 3 categories are


listed in the following chart.
Individual contacts Group contacts Mass contacts

Method demonstration &


Farm & home visits Bulletins
result demonstration

National demonstration
Office calls Leaflets
leader-training meetings

Conferences & discussion


Telephone calls Circular letters & radio
meetings & workshops

TV, exhibitions, fairs,


Personal letters Field trips
posters
6.1.2. According to form

 Extension-teaching methods are also classified according to their forms, such


as written, spoken & audio-visual.

 Some of the important methods under each of these 3 categories


Classification of extension-teaching methods according to their form
Written Spoken Objective or visual

General and special


Bulletins Result demonstration
meetings

Leaflets, folders, News


Farm and home visits Demonstration posters
articles

Motion-picture or movies,
Personal letters Official calls
charts

Slides & film-strips, models,


Circular letters Telephone calls, radio
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EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS

 Extension teaching methods may be defined as devices used to

create situations in which new information can pass freely between


the extension worker and the farming communities.
 The extension-teaching methods can also be defined as the tools

and techniques used to create situations in which communication


can take place between the rural people and the extension workers.
 Four conditions are necessary for effective use of teaching

methods. These include;-

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Extension teaching methods …

a. Learning situation: - The learning situation comprises the extension worker who
has clear objectives, knows the subject matter to be taught and is able to
communicate freely with the farmers.
 An effective learning situation requires the following essential elements:

1. An instructor (an extension worker, e.g. an extension officer or a village-level


worker)

2. Learners (the farmers, the processors, the farm women and the youth).

3. Subject-matter (the recommended improved practices, such as the seeds of high-


yielding varieties, fertilizer, balanced diet, etc.)

4. Teaching material, such as a flannel-board, a black-board, charts, models,


samples, slides, film strips, etc.

5. Physical facilities, such as sitting accommodation, good visibility, etc.


Extension teaching methods …

b. The learning objectives; - As a pre-condition, objectives for the use of extension


methods must be clearly established.
 An objective has already been defined as an end towards which teaching is

directed .
 Any purposeful teaching has specific objectives which must contain four basic

elements-people to be taught, behaviour changes to be made, subject matter to be


taught and life situation in which action is to take place.

c. The learning experiences: - Another condition is the employment of effective


learning experiences.
 A learning experience is defined as the mental or physical reaction one makes in a

learning situation through seeing, hearing or performing activities during a


learning process.
Extension teaching methods …

d. The use of a variety of teaching methods: - The final condition is


that provision should be made for the opportunity to use a variety
of extension methods.
 Extension methods may be classified in three groups on the basis of

the number of people they are designed to reach: these are:

1. individual methods

2. group methods and

3. mass methods.

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4
Extension teaching methods …

1. Individual Methods
 Individual methods are used in extension teaching in recognition of the fact that

learning is an individual process and that the personal influence of the extension
worker is an important factor in securing people’s participation in extension
activities.
 The various methods which come under the classification of individual methods

include:-
 farm and home visits,

 office calls,

 telephone calls,

 personal letters,
 informal contacts and
 result demonstrations.
Extension teaching methods …

2. Group extension teaching methods


 Group methods take into account the inclination of the individual to respond to

the pressures and opinions of groups in which he participates and to listen to the
views of others before arriving at a decision about making changes in his farming
operations.
 Group method include:-

 general meetings,

 group discussion,

 exhibits,

 tours and field trips,

 method demonstrations,

 extension schools and farmer training centre.


Extension teaching methods …

3. Mass methods of extension teaching


 Individual and group methods cannot reach everyone who wants

and needs information, so mass methods which have wide coverage


such as:-
 radio, television, cinema vans and

 public address systems, newspapers, posters and

 other printed materials can be used to reach large numbers of people

quickly and efficiently.

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Selecting and using teaching materials/techniques
 For an effective use of extension-teaching methods, it is not enough to know

these methods and their techniques.


 What is more important is the appropriate selection of a method or combination

of methods for a particular situation.


 In fact, when a farmer is exposed to a new idea several times by different

methods or a combination of methods, he is likely to accept it more quickly.


 Farmers learn about new practices through several stages.

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Selecting and using teaching materials/techniques
 These stages are known as:

 The awareness stage- when a person comes to know of a new practice but

lacks the complete information;


 The interest stage- when he becomes interested in a new idea and wants to

know more about it;


 The evaluation stage- when he mentally applies the new idea to his present

situation and evaluates it;


 The trial stage- when he applies the new idea or practice on a small scale in

order to determine its utility under his own situation; and


 Adoption stage- when he decides to continue the full use of the practice.

Thus, it is the cumulative effect on people through exposure to an idea


repeatedly that result in action.
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6.2.perception, attitude and decision making
 Perception refers to the way the world looks, sounds, feels, tastes or

smells.
 The meaning we attach to the raw information received through our senses

is called perception.
 Alternatively, interpretation of sensory information is perception
(Woolfolk, 1995).
 It is what is immediately experienced by a person.

 From another point of view, perception can be defined in terms of the

process giving rise to our immediate experience of the world.


 Perception can not be observed directly in behavior and must be inferred

from changes in performance or behavior.


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0
Perception…
 Perception can be defined as a process by which individuals organize and

interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their


environment (Robbins, 2001).
 Social perception is the process through which we attempt to understand

other persons and ourselves (Baron and Byrne, 1993).


 There are three factors that make up perception:

1. Detection: Sensing the stimulus.

2. Recognition: Identifying the stimulus.

3. Discrimination: Differentiating between stimuli (such as different


musical notes).

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1
Perception…
Nature of perception

1. Perception is a process
 Perception is essentially a process rather than a product and outcome of

some psychological phenomenon.

2. Perception is the information extractor


 Our sensory receptors are bombarded continuously by various stimuli

present in our environment.


 Perception forms the duty by extracting relevant information.

3. Perception is preparation to response


 Perception is the first step towards active behaviour of an organism. Our

sensory receptors are just the receiving and transmitting centers of the
sensory information.
perception…

4. Perception involves sensation


 The relationships between sensation and perception are directive what we do have

in sensation is always part of perception.

5. Perception provides organization


 In addition to the help provided in deriving meaning to sensory impressions,

perception also helps in its proper arrangement and organization.

6. Perception is highly individualized


 Perception of one individual differs significantly from another person in the same

situation.
 Different individuals do not perceive objects, events, or relationships in much the

same way.
 Event individual perceptions of the same event may vary.
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3
6.2.2. Attitude
 The most general and simplest view is that attitudes are likes and dislikes

individuals.
 There are numerous definitions of the concept attitude given by social

psychologists.
 Most of them view attitudes as inclinations or predispositions.

 Thurstone (1946) has defined attitude as the degree of positive or negative

affect associated with some psychological object.


 Allport (1935) reviewed the literature on the topic and defined an attitude

as a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience,


exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to
all objects and situations with which it is related.
14
4
Attitude…

 Following are the important elements of Allport's definition:

 Attitudes are private

 Attitudes are formed and organized through experience.

 That is, we are not born with our attitudes we acquire them via the socialization

process
 An attitude is not passive, but rather it exerts a dynamic or directive influence on

behaviour.
 Attitudes believed to directly influence behaviour.

 More recently, Petty and Cacioppo (1986) defined attitudes that capture the

essence of several definitions.


 According to them, attitudes are general evaluations people make about

themselves, other persons, objects, and issues.


Attitude…

 In other words, attitudes involve lasting likes and dislikes, preferences and

aversions, towards specific aspects of the external word.


 This definition is useful, for attitudes involve affective reactions and must persist

overtime to be of any practical (or theoretical) importance.


Components of attitude

 Our response to an object is often in line with what we believe about and

how we feel toward that object. Thus an attitude comprises three parts.

1. Cognitive component
 The cognitive component is the storage component where we organize

information (opinion & Belief) about an attitude object.


 For example, the belief that discrimination is wrong.

2. Affective component
 The affective component is the emotional (like-dislike) component of an

attitude.
 For example, I do not like Mr ‘X’ because he discriminates against a

specific group.
Attitude…

3. Behavioral (cognitive) component


 The behavioral component is the intention to behave in certain way toward

someone or something.
 For example, I might choose to avoid Mr ‘X’ because my feeling about him.

 Having an idea or belief about the object is the minimum condition for having an

attitude with regard to it.


 When the object of which you have an idea becomes associated with pleasant or

unpleasant events or with your aspirations and goals, you attach a corresponding
affect or an emotional tinge to that object.
 This affected belief energizes and directs your response with regard to the object.

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6.3.Method of influencing Human Behavior

 Human behavior is how human beings do things in a particular way i.e. in

good or bad ways.


 Politeness, sincerity, truth, respect to others are good human behaviors.

Rudeness, cheating, telling a lie, disrespecting others are bad behaviors.


 Extension work deals with changing human behavior for adopting new

technology through effective communication.


 No one changes its behavior abruptly.

 It involves a process and appropriate methods to change behavior of

human beings. These methods are:

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9
Method of influencing Human Behavior…

1. Compulsion or coercion: power is exerted by authority, focusing somebody to do


something.
 The person applying coercive power requires the following condition.

 He must have sufficient power

 He must know how can he achieve his goals and

 He must be able to check whether the person coerced is behaving in the desired manner.

 Application of coercer power means that the person applying the power is responsible for

the behavior of the person he is trying to change.


 It is possible to achieve change in behavior with a large number of people in relatively

short time using this method.


 Many government regulations and laws relating to public health, traffic control, check on

adulteration in agricultural inputs i.e. fertilizers, pesticides etc. are of this type.
 Dairy inspectors sometimes have to coerce dairy farmers to follow more hygienic
practices in their milking sheds
Method of influencing Human Behavior…
2. Exchange: - goods or services are exchanged between two individuals or
groups.
 The conditions necessary for applying this methods are that:

 Each party in the exchange process considers the transaction in their favor

 Each has the goods or services desired by the other: and

 Each can only deliver his part when the exchange goods or services have

been delivered by other, or he can trust that this will be done


 Exchange is often a very efficient method for meeting the needs and

interests of different groups, parties or individuals.


 However, it is not always efficient or fair.

15
1
Method of influencing Human Behavior…

3. Advice: advice is given on which solution to choose from for a certain problem.
We can use this methods if;
 The farmer agrees with us about the nature of his problem and criteria for

choosing a correct solution.


 We know enough about the farmer’s situation and have adequate information to

solve his problem in a way that has been tested scientifically or in practice.
 The farmer is confident that we can and will help him with a solution to his

problem.
 We don’t think it is necessary or possible for the farther to solve the problem

himself and;
 The farmer has sufficient means at his disposal to carry out the advice.

 The advisor is responsible for the quality of his advice.


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2
Method of influencing Human Behavior…

4. Openly influencing a farmer’s knowledge level and attitudes: this method may be
applied when:
 We believe the farmer cannot solve his own problem if he has insufficient or incorrect

knowledge and or his attitudes do not match his goals.


 We consider that farmer can solve his own problem if he has more knowledge or has

changed his attitude.


 We are prepared to help the farmer collect more and better knowledge to help him changed

his attitude.
 We have this knowledge or know to get it.

 We can use teaching methods to transmit this knowledge or to influence the farmer’s

attitude.
 The farmer trusts our experts and motives and is prepared to cooperate with us in our task

of changing his knowledge or attitude.


 It is possible to achieve long term behavior change using this method.
Method of influencing Human Behavior…
5. Manipulation: - influencing the farmer’s knowledge
level and attitude without the farmer being aware.
 Conditions for using this method are;
 We must believe it is necessary and desirable for the
farmers to change his behavior in certain direction
 We think it is unnecessary or undesirable for him to
make independent decisions.
 We control the techniques to influence farmer without
him being aware of it and :
 The farmer does not actively object to being
influenced in this way.
 In this situation the person or organization exerting
influence bears responsibility for the consequence of
their actions. Extension has an important role to play
15 in making the farmers aware of the people who for
4
Method of influencing Human Behavior…
6. Providing means: we can apply this method under
the following condition
 The farmer is trying to achieve certain goals which we
consider to be appropriate.
 The farmer does not have the means available to
achieve these goals, or he does not wish to risk using
these means; and
 We have these means and are prepared to make
them available to the farmer on a temporary or
permanent basis. Specific means in agriculture
Include long and short –term credit for the purchase
of inputs, farm machinery and production subsidies
etc.
 Government departments and banks use this method

15
for making financial and physical means available to
5 farmers.
Method of influencing Human Behavior…
7. Providing service: - this may involve taking over
certain tasks from the farmers. This method can be
used if;
 We have the knowledge and or means available to
perform the task better or more economically than
the farmer.
 We agree with the farmer that it is useful to perform
these tasks; and
 We are prepared to perform them for him.
 In advanced countries the farmers have to provide
information to the government regarding income,
resources, and statistical returns for livestock
number, crop production etc in a very long and
complicated form. Extension agent can help them in
15
filling these returns. This is not in our situations.
6
Method of influencing Human Behavior…

8. Changing the farmer’s social and economic structure: methods for this
aspect may be an important means of influence when;

a. We agree with the farmer about his optimal behavior

b. The farmer is not in a position to behave in this way because of barriers in


the economic and/ or social structure.

c. We consider changes in this structure to be desirable.

d. We have the freedom of work towards these changes; and

e. We are in a position to do this, either through power or by conviction.


 Extension agents can help farmers understand how economic and social

structures influence their prospects for making a better living and enjoying
a more comfortable style of life.
6.4. Designing Effective Extension Messages
 Farmers have different information requirements at each stage of the adoption process.

 This means that extension staff must understand which stage farmers are at before planning subject

matter and extension methods. Questions to help understand this process include:
 Should information be provided to make farmers aware of a new idea? If yes, perhaps radio and

posters, or folk drama and folk song might be the most effective methods.
 Should detailed information be provided when farmers have become aware and are interested?

If yes, perhaps leaflets with detailed technical information should be printed and circulated, or group
discussion meetings arranged, or field days held at a demonstration site, or articles published in local
newspapers.
 Should information be provided to increase specific skills in the use of a new technique so that farmers

can make a full evaluation? If yes, perhaps method demonstrations and formal training days would be
the most useful extension method.

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Designing Effective Extension Messages…

 Should information and support be provided to farmers when they

are trying a new idea for the first time? If yes, perhaps individual
farm visits and group discussions would be the most useful
extension method. Perhaps extension staff could also meet with the
whole farm family to discuss the new idea.
 Should support be provided to farmers to reinforce the benefits of a

new idea which has been adopted? If yes, perhaps group discussion
meetings should be arranged, or a radio interview with the farmer,
or the farmer could be invited as a resource person to a DAE
extension event.
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Method of influencing Human Behavior…

Other criteria to use in selecting methods


 cost - selecting methods which can be implemented within a budget, and are cost

effective;
 coverage - choosing group extension methods which will reach more than one or

a few farmers;
 complexity - selecting simple methods which do not need a lot of materials, or a

lot of time to plan and implement;


 skill - choosing methods which extension staff have the capacity to implement, if

not training may be required;


 targeting - selecting methods which are especially appropriate to categories of

farmers;
 Participation - choosing methods which enable farmers to participate in the

learning process.
Method of influencing Human Behavior…
 The choice depends on: the message, the
participants, available resources; and
Complementarity.
 The Message; - The extension method should be
appropriate to the subject, or message. For example,
a method demonstration might be the most
appropriate way to show a group of farmers how to
graft mango.
 The Participants; - The extension method should be
suitable for farmers, the participants. For example, a
method demonstration in the homestead area might
be the most appropriate for female farmers.

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Cont.…

 Available Resources; - The extension method should be cost effective.

Using materials which have been borrowed or re-used is a good way to


increase cost-effectiveness. The Seasonal Extension Monitoring System
measures cost-effectiveness, by taking the total cost of an event, and
dividing it by the number of farmers who participated. This is an
extremely rough guide, but can help extension staff select the most cost-
effective methods.
 Complementarities; - The extension method should complement any

other methods which have already been used to deliver a particular


message. For example, demonstrations and field days are perfect
compliments, as is the use of visual aids in formal training days or group
discussions. Complementarily enables extension staff to develop local

16 campaigns to address important issues identified.


2
Method of influencing Human Behavior…
 Appropriate extension methods for working with women

 Women are responsible for many agricultural development tasks, especially in female

headed households, and should therefore be specifically targeted for certain extension
services. There are number of important factors to consider when planning extension
activities with women’s groups:
 Timing; -Extension staff should consider whether the activity needs to be scheduled at a

particular time of day. For women’s groups this may be very different to the times that
male farmers groups meet. For example, during a Participatory Rural Appraisal in one
area of Bangladesh, Enfants du Monde staff found that women preferred activities to take
place between 1 p.m. and 3 p.m., after they had fed the household at lunchtime, and
before preparing dinner. Men preferred activities to take place between 11 a.m. and 1 p.m.
Extension staff should aim to plan the timing of activities in consultation with the groups
they are working with.

16
3
Cont.…

 Children; -Another important factor to consider when working with women

is children. Women are usually responsible for looking after children, whether
they are working in a homestead area, or participating in a group activity.
Extension staff should make allowances for this, or plan a separate activity
for children.
 Location; -While it is useful to meet a group of men in the field to discuss a

crop related issue, it is easier to meet women in the homestead. Many NGO
women’s groups have regular meeting places. Extension staff can find out
where these are, and whether it is possible to use them for extension events.
 Problem Census meetings should enable female farmers to identify their own

needs, generate some ideas for development, and help to plan activities that
they need in order to develop their homestead and farm. If women are
meaningfully involved in this way then extension plans are more likely to be
16
4 gender responsive.
CHAPTER SEVEN

PARTICIPATORY EXTENSION APPROACH

16
5
7.1. What is participation?

 Participatory Extension Approach puts emphasis on strengthening farmers'

problem-solving capacities from the very beginning.


 The principal instrument for practicing problem-solving skills is the PEA learning

cycle.
 The learning cycle makes flexible use of a variety of participatory methods and

tools (e.g. participatory rapid appraisal, participatory technology development or


action learning).
 Once the farmers have become aware of the root causes of their problems and

have identified the most pressing of these, the extension workers provide
technical knowledge and technologies, which may be useful to resolve the
problems identified.
 To perform well in a PEA, extension workers need not only agricultural expertise,

but also good analytical, pedagogical and facilitating skills (Anonymous, 2004).
What is participation…

 Most field work for community development or extension activities has three

phases i.e. planning, implementation and evaluation.


 The participatory approach, “directly involves members of the community in

these three steps”.


 Instead of decision s being taken and implementation being imposed by the

outsiders or those in higher authority, the community and its leaders are
encouraged and given opportunities so they can;
 Identify their owns needs.

 Plan how meet these needs.

 Have decision making power to call in particular resources which they feel are

appropriate in meeting their needs.


 Experience either success or failure of their own planning as well the physical

efforts of implementation,
What is participation…

 Feed the results of that self-evaluation back into a new planning action cycle,

 As a result of these experiences, acquire the necessary skills to sustain

community development efforts on their own.


 Thus, when using the participatory approach, field workers encourage
communities to experience self-determination in learning by doing.
7.2. Why Should Farmers Participate
Aims of participatory approach
 To persuade people that, by their own efforts, they can do much to improve

living conditions by wise and effective use of community resources, material


and human power.
 To develop cultural needs (adult literacy) social welfare (improved public

health, nutrition) as well as direct productive services (e.g. input supply,


marketing etc).
 To encourage every individual to participate in community affairs especially

in those matters relating to his or her livelihood.


 To develop the whole community, women as well as men, poor as well as less

poor, laborers and tenants as well as land owners.


Characteristics of PEA
 Integration of community mobilization for planning and action with rural

development, agricultural extension and research.


 Based on equal partnerships between farmers, researchers and extension agents

who can all learn from each other and contribute their knowledge and skills.
 Strengthening of rural people’s problem-solving, planning and management

abilities.
 Promotion of farmers’ capacity to adapt and develop new and appropriate

technologies/innovations (usually agricultural technologies and practices, but also


social institutions, health, water and sanitation, and other rural development
domains).
 Encourage farmers to learn through experimentation, building on their own
knowledge and practices and blending them with new ideas. This takes place in a
cycle of action and reflection which is called ‘action learning’.
Characteristics of PEA
 They recognize that communities are not homogenous but consist of various

social groups with conflicts and differences in interests, power and capabilities.
 The goal is to achieve equitable and sustainable development through the

negotiation of interests among these groups and by providing space for the poor
and marginalized in collective decision-making.
 The role of the extension agent is to facilitate this process.

 Researchers also have a role – they assist farmers and extension agents in joint

experimentation and learning processes and contribute their technical knowledge


to find solutions to the problems identified by farmers: ‘Participatory extension is
like a school of trying, where you try out ideas and share your experience with
others.’
7.3. Who will participate?
Principles and Values of Participatory Approaches
 PEA operates on a number of principles and values. The major point to note

however is that in the application of the approach, all stakeholders are viewed as
equal partners who have different but important roles to play. The identified
principles of PEA are:
 Integration of community mobilization for planning, implementation, monitoring

and evaluation with rural development, agricultural extension and research.


 PEA is based on an equal partnership b/n farmers, researchers and extension

agents who can all learn from each other and contribute their knowledge and
skills.
 PEA aims to strengthen rural people's problem- solving, planning and
management abilities. It enhances and strengthens the capacity of farmers to
adapt and develop new and appropriate technologies and innovations in all
sectors of the rural economy.
Principles and Values of Participatory Approaches…
 PEA encourages smallholder farmers to learn through experimentation, building

on their own knowledge and practices, and blending them with new ideas. This
takes place in a cycle of reflection and action which is referred to as “action
learning.”
 PEA recognizes that communities are not homogenous, but consist of various

social groups with conflicts and differences in interests, power and capabilities.
 The goal is to achieve equitable and sustainable development through the

negotiation of interests among these groups and by providing space for the poor
and marginalized in collective decision making.
7.4. When to Improve Participation Approach
 Again through experience, a core set of values are recognized as underpinning

PEA:
 Self-reliance: local people should be empowered to rely on their own capabilities

and assets rather than expect handouts, which often result in dependency on the
external agent,
 Inclusiveness: development initiatives should not discriminate against any

members of the community but rather aim for the total inclusion of all persons,
rich and poor, men and women,
 Ownership and control: people should take decisions and lead development

activities that affect their lives,


 Building on indigenous technical knowledge: development interventions should

always aim to build on local knowledge and draw upon local experiences in
problem- solving,
When to Improve Participation Approach…
 Learning through sharing and experimentation: people are better able to

understand new ideas and adopt new technologies when they have learnt of the
potential benefits of sharing and self-experimentation,
 Unity and co-operation: local organizations are important as vehicles for

organizing people and securing a common vision,


 Conservation of natural resources: sustainable development can only be

achieved when people conserve their natural resources.


A typology of participation – how people participate in development programmes and projects

Typology Components of each type

Passive People participate when they are told what is going to happen or has already happened. It is a unilateral
participation announcement by an administration or project management without listening to people’s responses.
The information being shared belong s to only to external professionals.

Participation in People participate by answering questions posed by extractive researchers using questionnaire surveys
supply of or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings as the finding of
information the research are neither shared nor checked for accuracy.

Participation People participate by being consulted, and external agents listen to their views. The external agents
through define both problems and solutions, and may modify these in the light of people’s response. Such a
consultation consultative process does not concede any share in decision making, and professionals are under no
obligation to accept people’s views.

Participation People participate by providing resources, for example labor, in return for food, cash or other material
through incentives, much on farm research falls in this category, as farmers provide the fields but are not
provision of involved in the experimentation or the process of learning. It is very common to see this participation.
material However, people take no interest in activities when the incentives end.
incentives
Functional People participate by forming groups to meet pre-determined objectives related to the project,
participation which can involve the development or promotion of externally initiated social organizations.
Such involvement does not tend to be at the early stages of the project cycles or planning but
rather after major decisions have been made. These institutions tend to dependent on external
initiators and facilitators but may become self-defendant.

Interactive People participate in joint analysis which leads to action plan and the formation of new local
participation institutions or the strengthening of existing ones. It tends to involve interdisciplinary methodologies
that seek multiple perspectives makes use of systematic and structured learning processes. These
groups take control over local decisions; therefore people have a stake in maintaining structures or
practices.

Self- People participate by taking initiative independent of external institutions to change systems. Such
mobilization self- initiated mobilization and collective action may or may not challenge existing inequitable
distribution of wealth and power.

17
7
CHAPTER EIGHT
CHALLENGES FOR AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION POLICIES
8.1. Challenges for Farmers and agriculture at large
 There is already ample evidence that the epidemic has changed the very fabric of

the farming population, bearing implications for agricultural extension services.


 Apart from the routine difficulties faced in daily work in rural areas by

agricultural extension staff in developing countries, the challenges that most


agricultural extension services face are mostly of a technical and logistic nature.
 Some examples are insect pest invasions, outbreaks of serious diseases, locust

attacks, severe climatic effects, natural disasters, or intensive campaigns for an


increase in agricultural production.
 This challenge has at least three major dimensions.

 First, the very nature of the extension work;

 Second, the impact of the epidemic on the extension organization itself and its

staff; and
 Third, the impact of HIV/AIDS on the clientele of extension services.
1. Nature of the extension work
 The workers, who have the most frequent contact with the small-scale farmers,

are the field extension agents.


 The extension services, by their very mandate and character, are supposed to deal

with traditional, mostly illiterate rural households, in order to provide them with
technical advice not only on agricultural technologies but also on relevant
subjects like farm input supply, credit, marketing and farm management. of the
epidemic.
cont.
Most of the extension staff themselves have their
genetic roots in rural families.
They travel frequently in rural areas, many times
spending nights away from home, and being
offered “hospitality” in villages due to their
status.
Also, they are in touch with so many widows
forced into farming because of their husbands’
death, who need extension advice.
Thus, the extension workers have ample
opportunities of getting involved with multiple
sex partners.
All these factors expose the extension staff to
18
1 the maximum risk of HIV infection, especially
The impacts of epidemic on extension organization itself and its staff

 A number of their colleagues have already become victim to the disease, and

more bad news is feared almost every day. The talk of colleagues’ demise is
common in office meetings more than ever before. Then, they have the
unbearable burden, in terms of time, money and energy, of taking care of their
close sick relatives and visiting sick neighbors.
 Some of them have lost their spouses, thus leaving them not only grieved but also

with the responsibility of taking care of minor children. Extension workers who
by training are required to motivate farmers to try and adopt new agricultural
technology are themselves depressed and frustrated, and this affects their output.
Reduction and disruptions in staff

 This is due to disruptions in their programmes caused by deaths, protracted sickness and

frequent absences of staff.


 Increased organizational costs

 Both public and private extension additional expenditure is related to payments for

treatment of sick staff and their relatives, funerals of dead staff, compensation, salary
advances, early retirements, recruitment and training of new staff, and for buying
insurance coverage. The increased costs are bound to affect the performance of public
extension departments as most of them already suffer from very low operational budgets.
The frequency of visits to the field will dwindle further and the few in-service training
opportunities the staff have will also disappear.
Established technical practices going obsolete
 The years old administrative, strategic, policy and operational

practices of almost all relevant organizations, including public,


private and NGOs, seem to be outdated due to drastic changes
in the social structure including, income levels, patterns of life,
and types of clientele, all caused by HIV/AIDS.

Drastic change in the composition of clientele


 Change of this magnitude in the type and character of the

clientele is bound to render the existing extension strategies and


methods outdated unless they are adjusted in line with the new
extension clientele and their needs. The public extension
organizations, however, are not yet prepared to cope with the
situation.
The impact of HIV/AIDS on the clientele of extension
services
 The extension staff who knows little about the epidemic and has

not received any special training in this subject; feel helpless and
embarrassed in front of the farmers. They are not in a position to
offer any useful information or meaningful advice.

Worsening supply of farm labor, food insecurity, and


poverty
 The emerging households, where the men and women of most

productive age have either died or are disabled by prolonged


sickness, are now headed by orphans, adolescents, the elderly,
and quite often weakened and sick adults, and have fallen
deeper into poverty and food insecurity.
 What challenges do Agriculture, Extension and Advisory
Services face today?
Hunger and Undernourishment:
 Global hunger down 100 million over the last decade: 805 million
people estimated to be chronically undernourished in 2012–14
(SOFI, 2014).
 Projections suggest that production increases alone would not be
sufficient to ensure global food security by 2050 (FAO, 2009)
 370 million persons would still be undernourished in 2050, unless
governments make sure access to food by the needy and the
vulnerable (FAO, 2009)
World demand for food increases
 World’s population is growing – to a projected 9.6 billion people
in 2050
 Changing food consumption patterns in most developing
countries due to rising incomes
 1/3 of food produced is lost or wasted globally
 Urban areas account for 70% of the world population in 2050 (up
to 49% at present)
Cope with scarce resources and manage them more sustainably
 1/3 of farm land are degraded

 Up to 75 % of crop genetic diversity has been lost, 22 % at risk

 Over the past decade, some 13 million ha of forests a year were converted into other land

uses
 Half of the fish stock are exploited

 The share of water available for agriculture is expected to decline to 40% by 2050 as

overall demand is projected to increase by 55%.

Raise rural incomes and contribute to development and poverty reduction


 An estimated 1,2 billion people in developing countries still live in extreme poverty

 With 75% of the world’s poor living in rural areas

 They are most dependent on agriculture as local economies are inadequately diversified

 Gender gaps often occur more pronounced among the poor


Adapt to the agro-ecological conditions of climate change
 By 2080, 75 mill. ha of land in SSA will be lost for rain feed agriculture due to climate

change
 Demand for irrigation will grow by 5 – 20 % worldwide

 Increase of extreme weather events (floods, draughts, storms, …)

 20-30% of species likely to be at an increasing risk of extinction with raising temperatures

 Improve resilience of production system and the local communities’

 Ability to cope with changes (FAO, 2014).

Changing drivers of agricultural growth


 Input intensification and land increase are no longer main factors of

productivity growth
 But Total Factor Productivity - Difference in growth between outputs and

inputs → efficiency gains


 Not only doing more with less, but a matter of how: right action at the
8.2. Reinventing Extension
 Responses to the challenges: - a holistic approach based on 5 key principles that balance
the social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainability (FAO, 2014):
1. Improving resource use efficiency
2. Conserve, protect and enhance natural resources
3. Protect and improve rural livelihoods and social well being
4. Enhance the resilience of people, communities and ecosystem (especially to climate
change and market volatility)
5. Good governance
 Meeting the challenges requires innovation (Innovation means doing things better,
using knowledge)
 Agricultural Innovation systems include all institutions and individuals that enable farmers
to innovate through:
 Enabling environment, including access to markets
 Agricultural R&D for family farms
 Inclusive agricultural and rural advisory services
 Agricultural Extension and Rural Advisory Services are priority areas, for;
 Closing the gap between actual and potential productivity
 Increasing labor productivity
 Improving farmer’s management skills
 Ensuring widespread adoption of more sustainable agricultural practices
 Supporting rural livelihoods
 Extension responses -Natural resources and climate
change
 Improving knowledge, research, innovation and implementation towards
more productive and sustainable use of water, energy, etc.
 Promoting the Climate-smart agriculture (CSA)
 Providing suitable technologies, sustainable and inclusive policies,
effective extension programs and sound education system so that more
is produced with less in good quality
 Extension responses – Learning/education/knowledge mgt
 Diverse profiles of advisors with new competencies (brokering,
organizational development, team work, innovation capacities,
management skills...)
 Learning, training and education for advisers according to the
challenges to be addressed

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