Heat Transfer

Operation: Radiation
Module 3
Electro-magnetic field
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μ
 Monochromatic radiation
• Monochromatic radiation refers to electromagnetic radiation that consists of a single
wavelength or frequency. The term "monochromatic" is derived from the Greek words
"mono" (meaning one) and "chroma" (meaning color), implying that it involves a single
color or wavelength.
• Key Characteristics of Monochromatic Radiation:
1.Single Wavelength or Frequency: Monochromatic radiation consists of just one
wavelength or one specific frequency of electromagnetic waves. In contrast to white light,
which contains multiple wavelengths, monochromatic radiation is highly pure in terms of
its spectral content.
1. For example, a monochromatic light source may emit only light at a wavelength of
600 nm (orange-red).
2.Narrow Bandwidth: The radiation has a very narrow range of wavelengths, theoretically
a single wavelength, though in practice it might have a very small range of wavelengths
due to physical limitations of sources.
3.Constant Color: If the radiation falls within the visible spectrum, the light emitted will be
perceived as a single color, such as red, green, or blue.
• Examples:
• Laser Light: A laser is an excellent example of a source that can emit nearly
monochromatic radiation, often with a very precise and pure wavelength (such as a
Absorption, Reflection and
Transmission
In 1864 by physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who postulated that accelerated charges or changing electric
currents give rise to electric and magnetic fields. These rapidly moving fields are called electromagnetic
waves or electromagnetic radiation, and they represent the energy emitted by matter as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz experimentally demonstrated the existence of such waves. Electromagnetic
waves transport energy just like other waves, and all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light
in a vacuum, which is c0 = 2.9979 × 108 m/s. Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their frequency
n or wavelength l. These two properties in a medium are related by

where c is the speed of propagation of a wave in that medium. The speed of propagation in a medium is
related to the speed of light in a vacuum by c = c0/n, where n is the index of refraction of that medium.
The refractive index is essentially unity for air and most gases, about 1.5 for glass, and 1.33 for water.
In heat transfer studies, we are interested in the energy emitted by bodies because of their temperature
only. Therefore, we limit our consideration to thermal radiation, which we simply call radiation.
Radiation
The electrons, atoms, and molecules of all solids, liquids, and
gases above absolute zero temperature are constantly in
motion, and thus radiation is constantly emitted, as well as
being absorbed or transmitted throughout the entire volume
of matter. That is, radiation is a volumetric phenomenon.
However for opaque (nontransparent) solids such as metals,
wood, and rocks, radiation is considered to be a surface
phenomenon, since the radiation emitted by the interior
regions can never reach the surface, and the radiation incident
on such bodies is usually absorbed within a few microns from
the surface. Note that the radiation characteristics of surfaces
can be changed completely by applying thin layers of coatings
on them.
 BLACKBODY RADIATION
• Radiation is emitted in all directions and at a broad spectrum of wavelengths
by a body that is at thermodynamic (or absolute) temperature above zero.
The material of the body, the state of the surface, and the temperature of
the surface all affect how much radiation energy is released from a surface at
a certain wavelength.
• Naturally, people would want to know how much radiation a surface can emit
at a certain temperature. That leads to the idea of blackbody (a standard
against which the radiative properties of real surfaces may be compared).
• A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation.
• At a specified temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy
than a blackbody.
• A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and
direction. Also, a blackbody emits radiation energy uniformly in all directions
per unit area. That is, a blackbody is a diffuse emitter. The term diffuse
means “independent of direction”.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law

• The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit time and per unit surface area was determined
experimentally by Joseph Stefan in 1879 which is expressed as
Planck’s Law
• The total blackbody emissive power, or Eb, is the total amount of radiation emitted over all wavelengths and
is determined by the Stefan–Boltzmann law.
• The quantity of radiation energy released by a blackbody at a thermodynamic temperature T per unit time,
per unit surface area, and per unit wavelength around the wavelength λ is known as the spectral blackbody
emissive power. For instance, we are more concerned with the quantity of visible light radiation that an
incandescent lightbulb emits than with the total amount emitted.
• Max Planck created the connection for the spectral blackbody emissive power Ebλ in 1901 along with his well-
known quantum theory. Planck's law, which describes this relationship, is stated as
This relation is valid for a
surface in a vacuum or a
gas. For other mediums, it
needs to be modified by
replacing C1 by C1/n2,
where n is the index of
k = 1.38065 ×10-23 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant refraction of the medium.
h=6.62607015×10−34 (joule-seconds)
λ = wavelength of the radiation emitted (m), T = absolute temperature of
the black body (K),
The variation of the blackbody emissive power with wavelength for
several temperatures. 1. The emitted radiation is a continuous
function of wavelength. At any specified
temperature, it increases with wavelength,
reaches a peak, and then decreases with
increasing wavelength.
2. At any wavelength, the amount of emitted
radiation increases with increasing
temperature.
3. As temperature increases, the peak of the
curves shift to the left to the shorter
wavelength region. Consequently, a larger
fraction of the radiation is emitted at shorter
wavelengths at higher temperatures.
4. The radiation emitted by the sun, which is
considered to be a blackbody at 5780 K (or
roughly at 5800 K), reaches its peak in the
visible region of the spectrum. Therefore, the
sun is in tune with our eyes. On the other
hand, surfaces at T > 800 K emit almost
entirely in the infrared region and thus are
Wien’s displacement law
As the temperature increases, the peak of the curve in previous given figure shifts toward
shorter wavelengths. The wavelength at which the peak occurs for a specified temperature is
given by Wien’s displacement law as

Derivation:
Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Stefan-Boltzmann constant (determined

experimentally)
Numerical Problem
Consider a 20-cm-diameter spherical ball at 800 K suspended in air as shown
in Fig. Assuming the ball closely approximates a blackbody, determine (a)
the total blackbody emissive power, (b) the total amount of radiation emitted
by the ball in 5 min, and (c) the spectral blackbody emissive power at a
wavelength of 3 mm.
Kirchhoff’s law
Let us consider a large enclosure of surface temperature Ts. The enclosure virtually behaves like a blackbody. It is
assumed that the radiant heat flux incident on any surface in the enclosure is q. There are several bodies inside the
enclosure which are sufficiently small so that the radiation effect on the surface of the enclosure is small. Let the surface
area of one of the bodies (say body-1) be A1. If E1 denotes the emissive power of the body, we have
the rate at which body-1 emits radiant energy = E1A1 (E1 is the emissive power of Body-1)
the rate at which body-1 receives radiant energy = α1(qA1)
Here α1 is the absorptivity of the body. Therefore, if the body-1 is in thermal equilibrium with the enclosure, then the
rate of emission of radiation must be equal to the rate of absorption.
E1A1 = α1qA1
E1 = α1q
Now if body-1 is replaced by a black body, we may put E1=Eb and α1=αb=1
Therefore Eb = 1.q = q
So, = =α1
Let us now define the emissivity ε of a body or surface as the ratio of its emissive power to that of a black body. So, for
body-1 , we may write ε1 =
Therefore ε1 = α1
This is valid for any other body inside the enclosure. Kirchhoff’s law states that the emissivity of a body which is in
thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, is equal to its absorptivity.
• It should be remembered that Kirchhoff’s law is strictly applicable only
when the source temperature of the irradiation is equal to the temperature
of the irradiated surface.
• But, as a matter of fact, the absorptivity of most real surfaces is relatively
insensitive to the temperature and wavelength.
• So, for practical purposes, it is customary to assume that the emissivity and
the absorptivity of a surface are equal even when it is not in thermal
equilibrium with its surroundings.
• This assumption leads to the concept of a grey body for which the
emissivity is independent of the wavelength of radiation
Grey Body

1.Emissivity (ε)
1.A grey body has an emissivity less than 1 but independent of
wavelengths. This means that a grey body emits a fraction of the
radiation that a perfect black body would emit at the same temperature.
2.The emissivity of a grey body is constant, meaning it is the same at all
wavelengths and does not depend on the specific frequency of the
radiation.
2.Absorptivity (α)
1.A grey body has an absorptivity that is also constant and equal to its
emissivity across all wavelengths. This means that for all wavelengths,
it absorbs a constant fraction of the radiation falling on it, regardless of
the wavelength of the radiation. α
Solid angle

The area of a surface on a sphere of unit radius is equivalent in magnitude to the solid angle
it subtends (both are 4π for a sphere of radius r = 1)
Note that the area dAn is normal to the direction of viewing since dAn is viewed from the center of
the sphere. In general, the differential solid angle dω subtended by a differential surface area dA
when viewed from a point at a distance r from dA is expressed as

where α is the angle between the normal of the surface and the direction of viewing, and thus dAn =
dA cosα is the normal (or projected) area to the direction of viewing.
 We now consider the rate at which emission from dA1 passes through dAn. This quantity
may be expressed in terms of the spectral intensity I λ,e of the emitted radiation. I λ,e is
the rate at which radiant energy is emitted at the wavelength λ in the (θ, φ) direction,
per unit area of the emitting surface normal to this direction, per unit solid angle about
this direction,
Note and used
that the area per unit wavelength
to define intervalisdλ
the intensity about
the λ.
component of dA1 perpendicular to
the direction of the radiation. From Figure, we see that this projected area is equal to dA1
cos . In effect it is how dA1 would appear to an observer situated on dAn. The spectral
intensity, which has units of W/m2 sr μm, is then
 The hemisphere above the surface intercepts all the radiation rays emitted by the
surface, the EMISSIVE POWER from the surface into the hemisphere surrounding it can
be determined by integration as

The intensity of radiation emitted by a surface, in general, varies with direction

(especially with the zenith angle θ). But many surfaces in practice can be approximated
as being diffuse. For a diffusely emitting surface, the intensity of the emitted radiation is
independent of direction and thus Ie = constant.
View factor between two aligned parallel rectangles of equal
size
View factor between two perpendicular rectangles with a
View factor between two coaxial parallel disks.
Radiosity
The total radiation energy leaving a surface per unit
time and per unit area is called the radiosity and is
denoted by J
For a surface i that is gray and opaque,
the radiosity can be
expressed as

The radiosity of a blackbody is equal to its emissive power. This is obvious, since
a blackbody does not reflect any radiation, and thus radiation coming from a
 Solar Radiation
• The sun is a nearly spherical body that has a diameter of D ≈
1.39 ×109 m and a mass of m ≈ 2×1030 kg and is located at a
mean distance of L = 1.50 × 1011 m from the earth. It emits
radiation energy continuously at a rate of Esun ≈ 3.8 × 1026 W. Less
than a billionth of this energy (about 1.7 ×1017 W) strikes the
earth, which is sufficient to keep the earth warm and to maintain
life through the photosynthesis process. The energy of the sun is
due to the continuous fusion reaction during which two hydrogen
atoms fuse to form one atom of helium. Therefore, the sun is
essentially a nuclear reactor, with temperatures as high as
40,000,000 K in its core region. The temperature drops to about
5800 K in the outer region of the sun, called the convective zone,
as a result of the dissipation of this energy by radiation.

• The solar energy reaching the earth’s atmosphere is called the

total solar irradiance G s, whose value is Gs =1373 W/m2
The total solar irradiance (also called the solar constant)
represents the rate at which solar energy is incident on a surface
normal to the sun’s rays at the outer edge of the atmosphere
when the earth is at its mean distance from the sun.