Radiation

Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation

Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a
result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. Unlike
conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does not require the presence of
an intervening medium. In fact, energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it
suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth.
In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form of radiation
emitted by bodies because of their temperature. It differs from other forms of electromagnetic
radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television waves that are
not related to temperature.
❖ Features of radiation heat transfer:
i. No medium is required in radiation heat transfer. In fact, energy transfer by radiation
is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. Air is
treated as a vacuum medium.

Figure 1: A hot object in a vacuum chamber loses heat by radiation only.

ii. Heat is exchanged in radiation heat transfer. i.e.- energy can be exchanged from low
temperature body to high temperature body.
iii. Unlike conduction and convection, heat transfer by radiation can occur between two
bodies, even when they are separated by a medium colder than both.

Figure 2: heat transfer by radiation can occur between two bodies, even when they are
separated by a medium colder than both of them.
❖ History of radiation:
The theoretical foundation of radiation was established in 1864by physicist James Clerk
Maxwell, who postulated that accelerated charges or changing electric currents give rise to
electric and magnetic fields. These rapidly moving fields are called electromagnetic waves
or electromagnetic radiation, and they represent the energy emitted by matter as a result of
the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz experimentally demonstrated the existence of such waves.
Electromagnetic waves transport energy just like other waves, and all electromagnetic waves
travel at the speed of light in a vacuum, which is𝐶0 = 2.9979× 108 m/s.Electromagnetic
waves are characterized by their frequency𝜈or wavelength𝜆. These two properties in a
medium are related by
 𝑐
𝜆=
𝜈
where cis the speed of propagation of a wave in that medium.
It has proven useful to view electromagnetic radiation as the propagation of a collection of
discrete packets of energy called photons or quanta, as proposed by Max Planck in 1900 in
conjunction with his quantum theory. In this view, each photon of frequency𝜈 is considered
to have an energy of
ℎ𝑐
𝑒 = ℎ𝜈 =
𝜆
−34
where h=6.626069× 10 j.s is Planck’s constant.

❖ Thermal radiation:
The type of electromagnetic radiation that is pertinent to heat transfer is the thermal radiation
emitted as a result of energy transitions of molecules, atoms, and electrons of a substance.
Thermal radiation is continuously emitted by all matter whose temperature is above absolute
zero.

Figure 3: Everything around us constantly emits thermal radiation.

Thermal radiation includes the entire visible and infrared (IR) radiation as well as a portion
of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation. It is in the range of 0.1-100 𝜇𝑚.

❖ Microwave:
Microwave heating of foods results from conversion of electromagnetic energy to thermal
energy through increased agitation of water molecules and charged ions when exposed to
microwaves. Direct penetration of microwaves into food materials enables us to heat foods
much faster than conventional heating methods that rely on surface heating such as
countertop stoves or baking ovens. The convenience brought about by fast microwave
heating makes microwave ovens a household necessity in modern society.
 Figure 4: Food is heated or cooked in a microwave oven by absorbing the
electromagnetic radiation energy generated by the magnetron of the oven.

Microwave ovens utilize electromagnetic radiation in the microwave region of the spectrum
generated by microwave tubes called magnetrons. Microwave in the range of 102 − 105 𝜇𝑚
are very suitable for use in cooking since they are reflected by metals, transmitted by glass
and plastics, and absorbed by food (especially water) molecules. Thus, the electric energy
converted to radiation in a microwave oven eventually becomes part of the internal energy of
the food. The fast and efficient cooking of microwave ovens has made them as one of the
essential appliances in modern kitchens.

❖ Question: Radiation can be treated as volumetric phenomena for gas, liquid, semi-
transparent solid and as a surface phenomenon for opaque/non-transparent solid.
Solution: The electrons, atoms, and molecules of all solids, liquids, and gases above
absolute zero temperature are constantly in motion, and thus radiation is constantly emitted,
as well as being absorbed or transmitted throughout the entire volume of matter. That is,
radiation is a volumetric phenomenon.

Figure 5: Radiation in opaque solids is considered a surface phenomenon since the radiation
emitted only by the molecules at the surface can escape the solid.
However, for opaque (nontransparent) solids such as metals, wood, and rocks, radiation is
considered to be a surface phenomenon, since the radiation emitted by the interior regions
can never reach the surface, and the radiation incident on such bodies is usually absorbed
within a few microns from the surface.

❖ Applications of Radiation:
i. Electronic cooling (if there are no flow of air).
 ii. Convection & radiation in a light bulb.
iii. Surface to surface radiation.
iv. Outdoor applications.

❖ Note:
➢ Air is heated by convection.
➢ Surface/ soil is heated by conduction.
➢ Umbrella can off the radiation.

❖ Laws of radiation:
i. Stefan–Boltzmann law:The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit time
and per unit surface area was determined experimentally by Joseph Stefan in 1879 and
expressed as-
𝑊
𝐸𝑏 (𝑇) = 𝜎𝑇 4 (𝑚2 ) ------------------------------------(1)

Where, 𝜎 = 5.670 × 10−8 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾 4is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and Tis the
absolute temperature of the surface in K. This relation was theoretically verified in 1884
by Ludwig Boltzmann. Equation (1) is known as the Stefan–Boltzmann law and 𝐸𝑏 is
called the blackbody emissive power. Note that the emission of thermal radiation is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.

ii. Planck’s law:

The Stefan–Boltzmann law in Eq. (1) gives the total blackbody emissive power𝐸𝑏 which
is the sum of the radiation emitted over all wavelengths. Sometimes we need to know the
spectral blackbody emissive power, which is the amount of radiation energy emitted by a
blackbody at an absolute temperature T per unit time, per unit surface area, and per unit
wavelength about the wavelength𝜆.
The relation for the spectral blackbody emissive power 𝐸𝑏𝜆 was developed by Max
Planck in 1901 in conjunction with his famous quantum theory. This relation is known as
Planck’s law and is expressed as-

𝐶1 𝑊⁄ . 𝜇𝑚
𝐸𝑏𝜆 (𝜆, 𝑇) = 𝐶 𝑚2 -----------------------(2)
𝜆5 [exp( 2⁄ 𝜆𝑇 )−1

Where,
𝐶1 = 2𝜋ℎ𝑐02 = 3.74177 × 108 𝑊. 𝜇𝑚4 /𝑚2
ℎ𝑐0
𝐶2 = = 1.43878 × 104 𝜇𝑚. 𝑘
𝑘
Also, Tis the absolute temperature of the surface,𝜆 is the wavelength of the
radiation emitted, and 𝐾 = 1.38065 × 10−23 𝑗/𝑘is Boltzmann’s constant.

iii. Wien’s displacement law:

 Figure 6: The variation of the blackbody emissive power with wavelength for several
temperatures.

As the temperature increases, the peak of the curve in Figure 6 shifts toward shorter
wavelengths. The wavelength at which the peak occurs for a specified temperature is given
by Wien’s displacement law as

(𝜆𝑇)max 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 2897.8 𝜇𝑚. 𝑘 -----------------------(3)

This relation was originally developed by Willy Wien in 1894 using classical
thermodynamics, but it can also be obtained by differentiating Eq. 2 with respect to𝜆while
holding Tconstant and setting the result equal to zero. A plot of Wien’s displacement law,
which is the locus of the peaks of the radiation emission curves, is also given in Figure 6.

❖ Radiation Intensity:
Radiation is emitted by all parts of a plane surface in all directions into the hemisphere above
the surface, and the directional distribution of emitted (or incident) radiation is usually not
uniform. Therefore, we need a quantity that describes the magnitude of radiation emitted (or
incident) in a specified direction in space. This quantity is radiation intensity, denoted by I.
 Figure 7: Radiation intensity is used to describe the variation of radiation energy with
direction
❖ plane Angle:
Let us try to quantify the size of a slice of pizza. One way of doing that is to specify the arc
length of the outer edge of the slice, and to form the slice by connecting the endpoints of the
arc to the center. A more general approach is to specify the angle of the slice at the center, as
shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: A slice of pizza of plain angle𝛼

𝜋
An angle of 90˚ (or 2 radians), for example, always represents a quarterpizza, nomatter what
the radius is. For a circle of unit radius, the length of an arc isequivalent in magnitude to the
plane angle it subtends (both are 2𝜋 for a complete circle of radius r =1).

❖ Solid Angle:
Now consider a watermelon, and let us attempt to quantify the size of a slice. Again, we can
do it by specifying the outer surface area of the slice (the green part), or by working with
angles for generality. Connecting all points at the edges of the slice to the center in this case
will form a three-dimensional body (like a cone whose tip is at the center), and thus the angle
at the center in this case is properly called the solid angle.
 Figure 9: A slice of watermelon of solid angle 𝜔.
The solid angle is denoted by𝜔, and its unit is the steradian(sr). In analogy to plane angle, we
can say that the area of a surface on a sphere of unit radius is equivalent in magnitude to the
solid angle it subtends (both are 4 𝜋for a sphere of radius r = 1).

❖ Properties of radiation:
The emissivity, absorptivity, reflectivity, transmissivity are radiative properties. They are
discussed below:
i. Emissivity:
The emissivity of a surface represents the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface
at a given temperature to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same
temperature. The emissivity of a surface is denoted by𝜖, and it varies between zero
and one, 0≤ 𝜖 ≤ 1. Emissivity is a measure of how closely a surface approximates a
blackbody, for which𝜖 = 1.
The radiation emitted by the surface at a given temperature
𝜖=
The radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature

ii. Absorptivity:
The fraction of irradiation absorbed by the surface is called the absorptivity, 𝛼

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠

𝛼= = 0≤𝛼≤1
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺

iii. Reflectivity:
The fraction reflected by the surface is called the reflectivity, 𝜌
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝜌= = 0≤𝜌≤1
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺

iv. Transmissivity:
the fraction transmitted is called the transmissivity, 𝜏
 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺𝑡𝑟
𝜏= = 0≤𝜏≤1
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺
❖ Question: Why we faced at mirror but not in a white paper?
Solution: In white paper, the rays are scattered as a result we cannot see our face in white
paper.
In mirror, the rays are not scattered as a result we can see our face in mirror.

❖ Question: Why transmissivity is zero for non-transparent body?

Solution: The thermal radiation zone has low energy, so its transmissivity (transparent) zero
for non-transparent body.

❖ Question: Is the red color apple at the room temperature and flame of torch at the same
thermal radiation?
Solution: The radiation from the red color apple at the room temperature is reflected
radiation. On the other hand, the radiation from the flame of torch is thermal radiation.

❖ Question: How do we see a black surface?

Solution: The black surface absorbs all incident radiation, there are no radiation emitted
from black surface by this way we see a black surface.

❖ Kirchhoff’s Law:
“The total hemispherical emissivity of a surface at temperature T is equal to its total
hemispherical absorptivity for radiation coming from a blackbody at the same temperature”.
This relation, which greatly simplifies the radiation analysis, was first developed by Gustav
Kirchhoff in 1860and is now called Kirchhoff’s law.

𝜀(𝑇) = 𝛼(𝑇)

Note that this relation is derived under the condition that the surface temperature is equal to
the temperature of the source of irradiation, and the reader is cautioned against using it when
considerable difference (more than a few hundred degrees) exists between the surface
temperature and the temperature of the source of irradiation.

Radiation Heat Transfer

❖ Radiation heat exchange between two black body:
Three factors consider for radiation heat exchange between two black body. They are-
 i. The orientation of the surfaces relative to each other.
ii. Surface of the body.
iii. Distance between the surface of the body.

❖ View factor/ Configuration factor/ Shape factor:

Portion of energy A strikes on B is called view/Configuration/Shape factor.

Figure 10: Geometry for the determination of the view factor between two surfaces.

To account for the effects of orientation on radiation heat transfer between two surfaces, we
define a new parameter called the view factor, which is a purely geometric quantity and is
independent of the surface properties and temperature. It is also called the shape factor,
configuration factor, and angle factor.
The view factor from a surface 𝑖 to a surface𝑗is denoted by 𝐹𝑖→𝑗 or just 𝐹𝑖𝑗 , and is defined as
𝐹𝑖𝑗 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑗 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦

❖ View factor relations:

1. The Reciprocity Relation:

The view factors𝐹𝑖→𝑗 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑗→𝑖 are not equal to each other unless the areas of the two
surfaces are. That is,
𝐹𝑖→𝑗 = 𝐹𝑗→𝑖 When 𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴𝑗

𝐹𝑖→𝑗 ≠ 𝐹𝑗→𝑖 When𝐴𝑖 ≠ 𝐴𝑗

We have shown earlier the pair of view factors 𝐹𝑖→𝑗 and 𝐹𝑗→𝑖 are related to each other by

𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖→𝑗 = 𝐴𝑗 𝐹𝑗→𝑖

This relation is referred to as the reciprocity relation or the reciprocity rule, and it enables
us to determine the counterpart of a view factor from a knowledge of the view factor
itself and the areas of the two surfaces.

2. The Summation Rule:

 The conservation of energy principle requires that the entire radiation leaving any surface
i of an enclosure be intercepted by the surfaces of the enclosure. Therefore, the sum of
the view factors from surface i of an enclosure to all surfaces of the enclosure, including
to itself, must equal unity. This is known as the summation rule for an enclosure and is
expressed as-
𝑁

∑ 𝐹𝑖→𝑗 = 1
𝑗=1

where Nis the number of surfaces of the enclosure. For example, applying the summation
rule to surface 1 of a three-surface enclosure yields.

∑ 𝐹1→𝑗 = 𝐹1→1 + 𝐹1→2 + 𝐹1→3 = 1

𝑗=1

Figure 11: Radiation leaving any surface 𝑖 of an enclosure must be intercepted

completely by the surfaces of the enclosure. Therefore, the sum of the view factors from
surface𝑖 to each one of the surfaces of the enclosure must be unity.

3. The Superposition Rule:

Sometimes the view factor associated with a given geometry is not available in standard
tables and charts. In such cases, it is desirable to express the given geometry as the sum
or difference of some geometries with known view factors, and then to apply the
superposition rule, which can be expressed as the view factor from a surface 𝑖 to a surface
𝑗 is equal to the sumof the view factors from surface 𝑖 to the parts of surface 𝑗. Note that
the reverse of this is not true. That is, the view factor from a surface 𝑗 to a surface 𝑖 is not
equal to the sum of the view factors from the parts of surface 𝑗 to surface 𝑖.
 𝐹1→(2,3) = 𝐹1→2 + 𝐹1→3

Figure 12: The view factor from a surface to a composite surface is equal to the sum
of the view factors from the surface to the parts of the composite surface.

4. The Symmetry Rule:

The determination of the view factors in a problem can be simplified further if the
geometry involved possesses some sort of symmetry. Therefore, the symmetry rule can
be expressed as two (or more) surfaces that possess symmetry about a third surface will
have identical view factors from that surface. The symmetry rule can also be expressed as
if the surfaces j and k are symmetric about the surface i then𝐹𝑖→𝑗 = 𝐹𝑖→𝑘 .

𝐹1→2 = 𝐹1→3
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝐹2→1 = 𝐹3→1
Figure 13: Two surfaces that are symmetric about a third surface will have the same
view factor from the third surface.

❖ Radiation Heat Transfer: Gray Body

The analysis of radiation transfer in enclosures consisting of black surfaces is relatively easy,
as we have seen above, but most enclosures encountered in practice involve nonblack
surfaces, which allow multiple reflections to occur. Radiation analysis of such enclosures
becomes very complicated unless some simplifying assumptions are made. To make a simple
radiation analysis possible, it is common to assume the surfaces of an enclosure to be opaque,
diffuse, and gray.

❖ Radiosity:
Surfaces emit radiation as well as reflect it, and thus the radiation leaving a surface consists
of emitted and reflected parts. The calculation of radiation heat transfer between surfaces
involves the total radiation energy streaming away from a surface, with no regard for its
 origin. The total radiation energy leaving a surface per unit time and per unit area is the
radiosity and is denoted by j.

Figure 14: Radiosity represents the sum of the radiation energy emitted and reflected by a
surface.

For a surface i that is gray and opaque (𝜖𝑖 = 𝛼𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼𝑖 + 𝜌𝑖 = 1), the radiosity can be
expressed as
𝐽𝑖 = (𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖 ) + (𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖 )
= 𝜖𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖 + 𝜌𝑖 𝐺𝑖
𝑊
= 𝜖𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖 + (1 − 𝜖𝑖 )𝐺𝑖 ( 2 )
𝑚
Where, 𝐸𝑏𝑖 = 𝜎𝑇 4is the blackbody emissive power of surface 𝑖 and 𝐺𝑖 is irradiation (i.e., the
radiation energy incident on surface𝑖 per unit time per unit area)

❖ Net Radiation Heat Transfer to or from a Surface:

During a radiation interaction, a surface loses energy by emitting radiation and gains energy
by absorbing radiation emitted by other surfaces. A surface experiences a net gain or a net
loss of energy, depending on which quantity is larger. The net rate of radiation heat transfer
from a surface 𝑖of surface area 𝐴𝑖 is denoted by𝑄𝑖 and is expressed as
𝑄̇𝑖 = (𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖 )
− (𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖 )
= 𝐴𝑖 (𝐽𝑖 − 𝐺𝑖 ) (𝑊)
𝐽𝑖 − 𝜖𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖
= 𝐴𝑖 (𝐽𝑖 − )
1−𝑐
𝐴𝑖 𝜀𝑖
= (𝐸 − 𝐽 )(𝑊)
1 − 𝜀𝑖 𝑏𝑖 𝑖
In an electrical analogy to Ohm’s law, this equation can be rearranged as
𝐸 −𝐽
𝑄̇𝑖 = 𝑏𝑖 𝑖 (W)
𝑅𝑖
 Where,
1 − 𝜀𝑖
𝑅𝑖 =
𝐴𝑖 𝜀𝑖
is the surface resistance to radiation.

Figure 15: Electrical analogy of surface resistance to radiation.

❖ Net Radiation Heat Transfer between Any Two Surfaces:

The net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface 𝑖to surface 𝑗can be expressed as
𝑄̇𝑖→𝑗 = (𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑗)
− (𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑗 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖)
= 𝐴𝑖 𝑗𝑖 𝐹𝑖→𝑗 − 𝐴𝑗 𝑗𝑗 𝐹𝑗→𝑖

Figure 16: Electrical analogy of space resistance to radiation.

Applying the reciprocity relation𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖→𝑗 = 𝐴𝑗 𝐹𝑗→𝑖 yields

𝑄̇𝑖→𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖→𝑗 (𝑗𝑖 − 𝑗𝑗 )

Again, in analogy to Ohm’s law, this equation can be rearranged as

(𝑗𝑖 − 𝑗𝑗 )
𝑄̇𝑖→𝑗 =
𝑅𝑖→𝑗
 Where,
1
𝑅𝑖→𝑗 =
𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖→𝑗

is the space resistance to radiation.

❖ Radiation Shields:
Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces can be reduced greatly by inserting a thin, high-
reflectivity (low-emissivity) sheet of material between the two surfaces. Such highly
reflective thin plates or shells are called radiation shields.
Radiation heat transfer between two large parallel plates of emissivity’s𝜀1 and 𝜀2 maintained
at uniform temperatures𝑇1 and 𝑇2 is given by
𝐴𝜎(𝑇14 − (𝑇24 )
𝑄̇12,𝑛𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 1 1
+𝜀 −1
𝜀
1 2

Figure 17: The radiation shield placed between two parallel plates and the radiation network
associated with it.

Now consider a radiation shield placed between these two plates, as shown in Figure 17. Let
the emissivity of the shield facing plates 1 and 2 be𝜀3,1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀3,2 respectively.The resistances
are connected in series, noting that𝐹13 = 𝐹23 = 1𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 𝐴3 = 𝐴for infinite parallel
plates, and thus the rate of radiation heat transfer simplifies to,
𝐴𝜎(𝑇14 − (𝑇24 )
𝑄̇12,𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 1 1 1 1
(𝜀 + 𝜀 − 1) + (𝜀 + 𝜀 − 1)
1 2 3,1 3,2

❖ Safety Rule:
 i. Less time spent near source-less radiation received.
ii. Greater distance from source- less radiation received.
iii. Shield.

❖ Radiation Effect on Temperature:

Global warming, greenhouse effect, Sky color, sun color.

❖ Question: Hot food wrapping with Aluminum foil-what condition to act as a perfect
radiation shield.
Solution: Hot food wrapping with Aluminum foil should maintain air gap as a result, there
is no heat conduction through the Aluminum foil wall.
 Gas radiation
❖ Gas radiation:
All gases are not participated in gas radiation. Those gas molecules which are in large size,
having dipole nature, having motion can contribute to gas radiation. Relatively large
molecule (CFC, 𝑂3 , 𝐻2 𝑂) contribute to gas radiation. 𝐻2 𝑂moleculecontribution in gas
radiation is high because it absorbs heat directly and with the increase 𝐻2 𝑂molecule, increase
the temperature of the atmosphere, as a result gas radiation is called selective radiation.

❖ Question: Whose contribution is larger for global warming- greenhouse gas/water

molecule-justify.
Solution:𝐻2 𝑂moleculecontribution in gas radiation is high because it absorbs heat directly
and with the increase 𝐻2 𝑂molecule, increase the temperature of the atmosphere.
𝐻2 𝑂molecule heat content capacity is larger than greenhouse gas as a result
𝐻2 𝑂moleculecontribution for global warming is larger than greenhouse gas.

❖ Question: What contribution of solar radiation in renewable energy. Also, factors consider
for energy distribution from sun to earth surface.
Solution:
The sun is our primary source of energy. The energy coming off the sun, called solar energy,
reaches us in the form of electromagnetic waves after experiencing considerable interactions
with the atmosphere. The radiation energy emitted or reflected by the constituents of the
atmosphere forms the atmospheric radiation.

Figure 18: Solar radiation reaching the earth’s atmosphere and the total solar irradiance.

Thermal radiation
0.1~100 𝜇𝑚

UV Visible ray Infrared ray

PV
 Factors consider for energy distribution from sun to earth surface:
i. Distance – the energy falling per unit area decreases with increasing radius
ii. The solar radiation undergoes considerable barrier as it’s passes through atmosphere
as a result of absorption & scattering by gas molecule.
iii. Temperature.

❖ Question: Why sky it is bluish color and at sunset the sun it’s red color.
Solution:
Air molecules scatter blue light much more than they do red light. At sunset, the light travels
through a thicker layer of atmosphere, which removes much of the blue from the natural
light,
allowing the red to dominate.

Figure 19: sky it’s bluish color and at sunset the sun it’s red color.