Mizan-Tepi University

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Surveying Engineering

1 Road Construction and Maintenance/Ceng4081

CHAPTER-1:
ROAD CONSTRUCTION
 Chapter one
2

1.1. Introduction
1.2. Earth work operation and equipment
1.3. Sub-Base course construction
1.4. Base course construction
1.5. Construction of surface course

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 1.1. Introduction
3

 Road construction covers:

New construction, re-construction or
rehabilitation, and improvements of an existing
road, overlays,…etc. starting from earthwork
and finishing with top bituminous or concrete
surface.
 Road is a structure composed of:
 Subgrade
 Sub-base course
 Base course
 Surface course
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 1.1. Introduction
4

Asphalt Concrete (AC) Base Course

Aggregates

Natural Soil (Subgrade)

Sub base Course

 1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment
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 Introduction
 During construction of roads, earth material will be removed &
placed to achieve the desired longitudinal and cross sectional grade.
 This movement of earth throughout the site could be very expensive.
 However, Before the commencement of earthworks, the site for the
intended road construction must be surveyed and set out.
The principal activities are:
 Excavation, including leveling, cut to cross fill and borrow
excavation
 Loading, hauling and unloading
 Filling, including spreading and compaction
 Grading and finishing
 1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment
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Route corridor selection

The first step to decide the potential corridor of the road project.
 The following major factor  This shall be accomplished by
should be considered while a team consists of:
selecting a corridor:  Highway engineer
 Traffic forecast  Structural engineer
 Connectivity  Surveyor
 Economy  Local leaders
 Engineering issues  Administrative expert
 Environment  Political analyst,
 Strategy  socio-economic analyst.
 1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment
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 The major activities that could be executed under

earthwork operation are:

A. Setting out

B. Site clearance & preparation

C. Excavation

D. Embankment

E. Compaction
 1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment
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 A. Setting out
 It is the procedure of laying down design elements and
marking the location of various references.
 A wooden pegs used to mark a temporary locations

which could facilitate the subsequent activities.

 Setting out pegs would be driven into the ground at key
points such as;
 Benchmarks
 Centerlines
 Manholes
 Drainage line
1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment
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A. Setting out (...cont.)

 Horizontal Alignment

 It includes the setting out of tangents, curves, super-elevation,

extra widening, & transition curve, etc.
 Its proper execution could result in high performance regarding
speed, safety, efficiency, comfort, economy & highway
capacity
1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment
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A. Setting out (...cont.)

 Vertical Alignment

 It Is the setting out of the design level of the road

 Used to decide the grade of the road.
1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment
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A. Setting out (...cont.)

 Cross Section

 It is the setting out the width of a road and position of

the drains from the center line and set out levels.
 Once the center-line is set out, the next task is to set out

the cross section.

1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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B. Site clearance and preparation

It is basically the preparation of the entire site to allow
subsequent work

Clearing: it is the removal of materials above the

existing ground surface. It includes bush clearing,
heavy grass clearing, boulder removal and top soil
removal

Grubbing: it is the removal of roots, stumps, and

similar objects to a normal depth below the ground
surface.
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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B. Site clearance and preparation (…cont.)

 In cut areas, in addition to the removal of materials
above the ground, generally require that all stumps
and roots should be removed to a depth not less than
0.3 m below the proposed road.
 This requirement usually holds in embankment areas
where the height of the fill is less than about 1.5 m.
1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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C. Excavation
 It is the process of cutting and removing earth material from
its original position, transporting and dumping it as fill or
spoil bank.
 It is needed when the finished formation level of a road is to
be kept lower than the natural ground level.
 The formation may be best protected by immediately
laying and consolidating the sub-base material.
 If this is not possible, the excavation should be left at
about 150 mm above the formation level, so that the
natural ground is used to provide the desired protection.
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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C. Excavation (..cont.)
 Specifications usually classify excavations based on the type
and easy of excavation as follows:
 Rock excavation
 Common excavation
 Unsuitable excavation
 Borrow excavation
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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C. Excavation (..cont.)
 Rock excavation

Materials that can not be excavated without blasting or the

use of rippers and all boulders or other detached stones, each
having a volume of 1m3 or more.
 Common excavation
Excavation and disposal of all materials of whatever
encountered or material which can be efficiently removed or
loaded by equipment.
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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C. Excavation (..cont.)
 Unsuitable excavation:

The removal and disposal of unsaturated mixture of soil and

organic matter unsuitable for embankment materials.
 Borrow excavation:
Excavation of approved material required for the construction
of embankments and other element of the road.
 Suitable materials are used in constructing embankments,

shoulder, Subgrade, slopes, and backfill structures.

 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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C. Excavation (..cont.)
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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C. Excavation (..cont.)

Cut Section
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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D. Embankment
 It is a volume of earthen material that is placed and
compacted for the purpose of raising the grade.
 A fill refers to a volume of earthen material that is
placed and compacted for the purpose of filling in a
hole or depression.
 Constructed using materials that are usually consist of
soil, aggregate, rock, or crushed paving material.
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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D. Embankment (…cont.)
 Methods of embankment construction on marshy area
When convectional construction is unsatisfactory, special
procedures are necessary to construct embankments along
marshy areas.
i. Removal and replacement method
Suitable where the undesirable soil is exist for shallow depth,

say up to 2.4 to 3.7m and is under laid by a soil of satisfactorily

character or rock.
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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 Methods of embankment construction on marshy area

ii. Displacement method
 This is a method by which the unsuitable muck is

displaced by the weight of the fill and possibly a

surcharge or by this weight supplemented by explosives
water jetting.
 The blast serves to displace the material by the force of

explosions and by liquefying the remaining unsuitable

material so that it is displaced more readily by the weight.
 The surcharge is uncompacted fill added over the

compacted fill to accelerate the displacement.

 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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 Methods of embankment construction on marshy area

iii. Vertical sand method
 It is a method by which vertical columns of sand, 450 to
600 mm in diameter, spaced from 2 to 6m apart along a
centre beneath the embankment section carried completely
through the compressible soil to accelerate consolidation.
 A sand blanket 1to1.5 m thick is generally placed at the top
of the drain extending across the entire width of
embankment section.
 The embankment is then constructed by normal methods on
top of the sand blanket.
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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 Methods of embankment construction on marshy

area
iv. Fabric Reinforcement
This is the use of engineering fabrics such as
geotextiles or geotechnical fabrics placed on weak
foundation in order to increase the bearing capacity and
over laid with the embankment fill.
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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iv. Fabric Reinforcement (…cont.)

 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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 Materials used for embankment

 Soil

Many different types of soil may be suitable for the use of embankment or fill, ranging from

granular soil (sand and gravel), which are highly suitable, to the more finely sized soils (silt

and clay), which are usually less suitable.

 Oversize Materials
 Some oversize materials (over 100 mm), such as rocks, large stones, & reclaimed paving

materials, can be used for the construction of embankment bases.

 It can provide a stable embankment base

 It should have strong particles that do not readily break down under the action of construction

machinery

 It should have a range of size, so that void spaces are at least partially filled.
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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 The following types of material shall be considered

unsuitable for embankment:
 Peat and other organic materials from swamps & marshes that
contain compressible soils & excessive amount of degradable
organic matter such as decomposed vegetation.
 Materials with more than 5% by weight of organic materials
 Materials with a swell of more than 3% (e.g. black cotton soils)
 Clay having liquid limit exceeding 90 and plasticity index
exceeding 45
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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 MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING METHODS
Gradation:
Well-graded fill materials that consist of two or more soil types, usually a mixture of granular
and fine-grained soils, are most suitable for embankment construction.
Unit Weight and Specific Gravity:
 Vary in unit weight, depending on the type of material & its moisture content.
 Fill materials that are relatively low in unit weight offer the advantage of transmitting less
dead load to the underlying soil that supports an embankment.
Moisture-Density Characteristics:
 The compaction characteristics (optimum moisture content and maximum dry density) of
fill material are the most important single property that affects embankment performance.
 Often, it is required that the compacted fill material to have an in-place density that is
within a certain percentage of the maximum dry density (usually 95% or more) at a
moisture content, that is within a certain percentage (usually 3% or less).
Permeability:
This property is indicative of the ability of a compacted fill material to provide drainage for
excessive moisture.
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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Shear Strength:
 The shear strength characteristics (cohesion and/or internal friction) are indicative

of the ability of a fill material to support loads that are imposed upon it under
given drainage conditions.
 Used to compute the slope stability of an embankment.

Compressibility:
It is the consolidation or settlement characteristics of a material under long-term
loading conditions.
Bearing Capacity:
Bearing capacity refers to the ability of a fill material to support the loadings
imposed upon it over the life of the facility without undue settlement, volume
change, or structural damage
Corrosion Resistance:
It is a basic chemical or electro-chemical property of a material that can induce
damage to concrete structures, or steel piles, with which the fill material may come in
contact.
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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 The design elements in highway embankments are:

 Height

 Fill Material
 Settlement

 Stability of Foundation
 Stability of Slopes
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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E. Compaction
 It is necessary to increase the strength of fill material
by reducing the void space within soil particles.
 Its performance depends on the following:
 Material characteristics
 Moisture content
 Type of compaction equipment
 Weight of the equipment in relation to its width of roller or base
plate
 Thickness of the layer being compacted and
 Number of passes (frequency) required.
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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E. Compaction (…cont.)
Control of Compaction
 The field compaction process is controlled by making relatively frequent
checks of the density and moisture content of the soil that is undergoing
compaction.
 The determination of density can be done by digging a cylindrical hole in the
soil layer.
 The common approach to measure the volume of the hole is to use a standard
sand-cone apparatus.

 Other approaches can be used to measure the hole volume including:

 By filling the hole with a soil or

 By placing a balloon in the excavated hole and filling it with water

 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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E. Compaction

Table 1.1: ERA recommendation for Subgrade compaction

Light compaction Heavy compaction
Type of work
MDD MDD

The upper 250 mm of soil

immediately beneath the sub-base Minimum of 100% 93%
or capping layer

lower layers of an embankment 95-100% 90-93%

 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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 Cut and fill

 These terms are used in earthworks where, for economic
reasons, the excavated earth in cuttings (cut) should, if
possible, balance the amount needed to form
embankments (fill).
 Ideal design uses all the excavated material from the
cuttings is exactly forming the embankments.
 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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Typical Roadway Cross Sections

 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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 1.2. Earthwork operation (…cont.)
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 Checking of the Subgrade:

The finished compacted surface of the sub-grade shall
conform to the allowable tolerances as specified here:
 1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment (…cont.)
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 Road Construction Equipment

Construction equipment often affects the time, effort, &
productivity of a project.

Excavator
 Excavate an existing ground
in firm and hard material.
 Load the excavated material
onto a dump truck.
 1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment (…cont.)
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Scraper
 Digging
 Loading
 Transporting
 Dumping and
 Spreading earth
material
1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment (…cont.)
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Loaders
 To excavate and move
soft materials
 Load/unload trucks
1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment (…cont.)

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Dozer
 Ripping and loosening of
rocky earth in preparation
for excavation
 Earth moving operation for
short distances, especially in
rough, rocky ground and on
steep slopes
 Tree removal
 1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment (…cont.)
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 Compaction Equipment
 The function of compaction equipment is to
produce higher density in soil mechanically.
 The basic forces used in compaction are static
Steel-wheeled roller
weight, kneading, impact and vibration.
 Compaction of gravel and
 gravel-sand mixture
1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment (…cont.)
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Sheep’s foot roller

Compaction of soils of
moderate to high plasticity
including:
 Silts
 Clayey sands

 Silt-clay mixtures

 Clayey gravels

 Silty gravels.
1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment (…cont.)
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 Grading and Finishing Equipment

 The function of grading equipment is to bring the earthwork to the desired
shape and elevation.
Graders: Multi-purpose equipment used for:
 Finishing

 Shaping

 Bank sloping

 Ditching

 Mixing

 Spreading

 Side casting

 Leveling and crowning

 Site striping operations

1.2. Earthwork operation and equipment (…cont.)
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Hauling Equipment
Dump trucks
Are usually used as
haulers for excavated
materials as they can
move freely with
relatively high speeds.
 Subgrade soil with geosynthetics
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 49

1.3. Sub-Base course

construction
 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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 It provides additional support to the base and surface

course in distributing the load.
 It serves as a separation layer between subgrade and base
course.
 Under special circumstances, it may also act as a filter or
as a drainage layer
 Selection of sub-base materials will therefore depend on
the design function of the layer and the anticipated
moisture regime, both in service and at construction
 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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 The material to be used for the work shall be

 Natural gravel
 Weathered Rock
 Crushed stone
 Cinder Gravel
 Recycled pavement material
 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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 Construction Requirements
1. Preparation of existing surface

The existing surface shall be graded & finished as provided under the

requirements of subgrade preparation, before placing the Sub-base Material.

 Camber or slope of the road bed

 Undulation
 Firmness of the compacted
surface
 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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Construction Requirements (…cont.)

2. Placing
 Should be placed at uniform mixture on a prepared sub-grade
in a quantity which will provide the required compacted
thickness.
 If more than 1 layer is required, each layer should be shaped
& compacted before succeeding layer is placed.
 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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 Construction Requirements (…cont.)

3. Spreading and compacting

 The mixture shall be spread to the Plan thickness, for compaction.

 If the thickness is 200mm

or less, the material may be
spread and compacted in 1
layer
 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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Spreading of GS layer using grader (manual construction)

 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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 Construction Requirements (…cont.)

3. Spreading and compacting (..cont.)
The moisture content of sub-base material shall, if necessary, be
adjusted prior to compaction by watering with approved sprinkles
mounted on trucks or by drying out, in order to obtained the required
compaction.
 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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 Construction Requirements (…cont.)

3. Spreading and compacting (…cont.)

Rolling procedure:

1. Rolling shall progress gradually from the sides to the center, parallel to the
centerline of the road & shall continue until the whole surface has been
rolled.
2. Each succeeding pass shall overlap the previous pass by at
least one third of the roller width
3. Any irregularities or depressions shall be corrected until surface is smooth
& uniform.
 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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 Construction Requirements (…cont.)

Rolling operation
 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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 Construction Requirements (…cont.)

4. Finished sub base course Tolerances
 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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Test Frequency for checking

Frequency (one Minimum number of
Test test every) tests/lot
Material
Field density and OMC 200 m 4
Atterberg limits and
1km 4
Gradings
Construction tolerances
Surface levels 20 m 3 points/cross-section
Thickness 20 m 3 points /cross-section
Width 20 m
Cross section 20 m
 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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 1.3. Sub-Base course construction
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63

1.4. Base course

construction
 1.4. Construction of Base Course
64

 It is subjected to heavy loads and is an important

component of the pavement structure.
 Its thickness is governed by the properties of the
underlying layers.
 Surface tolerance of this course is very important as the
cross slope requirement of the highway section is
determined by how well the grade of the base course is
set.
 1.4. Construction of Base Course
65

 It is carried across underneath the shoulders or curb

and gutters to not only provide a stable base but
also to ensure continuity for drainage, away from
the surface course of the pavement section.
 When these courses cannot be day lighted, it is
traditional to install an under-drain system to aid in
draining excess moisture away.
 It is good practice to use good granular material around
the under drain system with filter fabric to keep fine-
grained soils from clogging the drains.
 1.4. Construction of Base Course
66

 Care should be taken to keep construction traffic off these

under-drains and from getting crushed.
 Tight control of grade is especially important when
dealing with treated base courses.
 Compaction of treated bases can be accomplished using
sheep’s foot roller or vibratory compactors.
 The top layer is generally compacted using pneumatic-
tired rollers preceded by shaping with a blade grader.
 1.4. Construction of Base Course
67

 Base course material

 Crushed Rock or Stone
 Naturally occurring Granular Materials,
Boulders
 weathered rock, either unstabilized or
chemically stabilized
 1.4. Construction of Base Course
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Construction Requirements
The same as sub base course
 1.4. Construction of Base Course
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 Construction Requirements
Finished base course tolerances
Permitted variation from design
THICKNESS OF LAYER + - 10mm
Permitted variation from design
LEVEL OF SURFACE + 5mm or – 10mm
Permitted SURFACE IRREGULARITY
measured by 3-m straight-edge 5mm
Permitted variation from design
CROSSFALL OR CAMBER + - 0.2%
Permitted variation from design
LONGITUDINAL GRADE over 25m in length +-0.1%
 1.4. Construction of Base Course
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 1.4. Construction of Base Course
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72

1.5. Construction of Asphalt

Concrete
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
73

Surface course
 It is a structural part of the pavement:
 Must be tough to resist distortion under traffic load
 Provide a smooth and skid-resistant riding surface

 The surface must be waterproof to protect the entire

pavement & subgrade from the weakening effect of water
 Attention should be paid to material source, quality,
transportation, storage, mixing and discharge, and the
equipment used.
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
74

 Mixes must be placed and compacted before they cool to

185F (85C).
 The minimum mixing temperature will depend where it is
placed & the ambient conditions.
 When asphalt pavements are placed in cold temperatures,
the asphalt stiffens too rapidly
 Hence, agencies place temperature or calendar
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
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 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
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A. Bituminous Prime Coat

 It is applied to a granular base course prior to placement of the
asphalt surface course.
 The purpose of the prime coat is to:
 Bond loose material providing a cohesive platform for paving operations
and provide adhesion between the base course and surface course.
 Fill capillary voids in base.
 Protect the surface of the base course from infiltration of moisture such
as from rainfall.
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
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A. Bituminous Prime Coat (…cont.)

 However, if the surface course is to be placed immediately
following trimming of the base course, omitting the prime coat will
not be detrimental to the performance of the pavement section.
 Prime coat is generally applied at the rate of 0.1 to 0.3 gallons per
square yard or 0.5 to 1.5 l/m2.
 Medium-curing cutbacks normally are used for prime coating with:-
 MC-30 recommended for priming a dense flexible base and
 MC-70 for more granular-type base materials.
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
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A. Bituminous Prime Coat (…cont.)

 Paver speed should be geared to mix production, delivery
and compaction. Every effort should be made to keep a
constant paver speed.
 The number of rollers required for proper compaction is
based on the square yardage placed.
 Roller speed should be limited to 5 km/h.
 Many projects are compacted with three rollers: a breakdown
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
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 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
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B. Material Requirements
Bituminous material shall be either:
a. Rapid Curing (RC) Cut-back asphalt is dissolved in
gasoline.
b. Medium Curing (MC) Cut-back asphalt is dissolved
in kerosene.
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
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C. Construction Requirements
i. Surface Condition
 Prime coat must be applied only to surfaces that are dry or slightly moist.
 No Prime coat should be applied when the weather is foggy or rainy.

ii. Equipment
 The liquid material shall be sprayed by means of a pressure distributor of
not less than 1000 liters capacity.
 The tank shall have heating device to heat a complete charge of
bituminous liquid to 180 degree Celsius
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
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3. Application
 Immediately before applying the prime coat, the full width
of the surface must be treated & swept with power broom.
 The rate of application of the bituminous material shall be
within the range of 1 – 2 liters/square meter.
 The prime coat shall be left undisturbed for a period of at
least 24 hours & shall not be opened to traffic until it has
penetrated & cured sufficiently.
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
83

B. Bituminous Tack Coat

 An application of bituminous binder to an existing surface to
ensure bond between new and old surface.
Application
 Too much of tack coat-may create plane of slippage between
pavement courses i.e. may act as lubricant than as adhesive. It may
create fat Spots or bleeding on the surface of the new pavement
 The rate of application of the bituminous material shall be within
the range of 0.2 – 0.7 liters/square meter.
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
84

Construction requirements
1. Asphalt batching plant

The plant shall include a continuous mixer of approved type, adequately

heated & capable of producing a uniform mixture within the job-mix
tolerances.

2. Hauling Equipment

Dump truck used for hauling bituminous mixtures must be tight, clean,
smooth metal beds & must have cover of canvass so that the mixture
maintain its temperature when delivered on the project site.
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
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Transportation of HMA material

 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
86

 Construction requirements
3. Bituminous Paver
 Paver shall equipped with a control system capable of
automatically maintaining the screen elevation.
 Paver should have ski-type device of not less than 9m in
length or as directed by the Engineer.
 Manual control is allowed as long as proper monitoring
shall have been conducted by the representatives from the
government or consultant.
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
87

PAVING IN FULL WIDTH

 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
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5. Compaction
1) Initial rolling:

Pneumatic tired roller of not less than10 Tons

2) Final rolling:

Tandem steel wheeled roller of not less than 10 Tons

3) Speed of rolling:

Not less than 5 Km/hr

Heating Requirements
 Heating temperature of aggregates = 159oc

 Heating Temperature of asphalt = 159oc

 Temperature of rolling = 107oc

 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
89

 Immediately after the mixture has been spread, struck off and surface
irregularities adjusted, it shall be thoroughly & uniformly compacted by
rollers.
 However, the mixture shall be placed at a temperature not less than 107 oc as
measured in the truck prior to dumping into the spreader.

 The surface shall be rolled when the mixture is in proper condition, and when
rolling does not cause under displacement, cracking & showing.
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
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 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
91

 Rolling shall progress gradually from the sides to the

center, parallel to the centerline of the road & shall
continue until the whole surface has been rolled.
 Each trip should overlap ½ the roller width, gradually
progressing to the crown of the road.
 On super-elevated curves, the rolling shall begin at the
low side and progress to the high side overlapping of
longitudinal trips parallel to the centerline.
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
92
Core boring
Core boring samples shall be taken at a distance of 100 meters for Thickness and
Density Determination
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
93
 1.5. Construction of Asphalt Concrete
94
 Chapter Two
Road Maintenance &Rehabilitation

2.1. Pavement Distress/Failure

2.2. Pavement Condition Survey
2.3. Pavement Maintenance
2.4. Pavement Rehabilitation
2.5. Asphalt Overlays of Flexible
Pavements
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress
96

 Distress: is defined as a condition of pavement

structure that reduces serviceability.

• Serviceability: is the ability of a pavement to

provide a safe and comfortable ride to its users.

 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
97

 Distress may be caused due to:

 Poor quality of material
 Improper structural design
 Poor construction
 Wheel loads, exceeding the designed load
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
98

 Defects of a road can be classified into two:

Surface defects
Affects the pavement surface and may or may not be progressively changed into
structural defect.
Structural defects
Affects the structural part and makes the pavement incapable of sustaining a load
imposed upon its surface.
 The types of defects in bituminous surfacing are grouped under four categories:
i. Surface defects
ii. Cracks
iii. Deformation Structural defects
iv. Disintegration
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
99

2.1.1. Surface Defects

These are associated with the surfacing layers and may be due to

excessive or deficient quantities of bitumen in these layers.

It includes:

A. Bleeding/ Fatty surface

B. Polished/Smooth surface

C. Streaking

D. Hungry surface
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
10
0
A. Bleeding/Fatty surface
 Symptoms
 It occurs when asphalt binder fills the aggregate voids during hot
weather and then expands onto the pavement surface.
 It usually creates a shiny, glass-like reflecting surface that can
become quite sticky in hot weather.
 Since bleeding is not reversible during cold weather, asphalt
binder will accumulate on the pavement surface overtime.
 It causes loss of skid resistance when wet.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
10
1
 Causes
 Excessive asphalt binder content
 Low air voids content in asphalt mix
 By over-application of surface dressing binder.

 Treatment
Minor bleeding: by applying coarse sand to spot up the excess asphalt
binder.

Major bleeding: by cutting off excess asphalt with a motor grader or

removing it with a heater planer.
 If the resulting surface is excessively rough, resurfacing may be
necessary.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
10
2
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
10
3

B. Polished/Smooth surface
 Symptoms
 The polishing of aggregates having smooth & rounded
surfaces with fine micro texture, either in their original
condition or after repeated abrasive wear by traffic.
 Has a very low skid resistance value and becomes very
slipper when wet.
 Such a condition invites hazards, especially on gradients,
bends and intersections.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
10
4

 Causes
 Low quality aggregate
 Repeated traffic
applications
 Treatment
Care should be taken to
select hard and angular
aggregates.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
10
5

C. Streaking
 Symptoms
Characterised by the appearance of thin and heavy lines of
bitumen either in longitudinal, or in transverse direction.
 Causes
Surface containing different quantities of bitumen due to non-
uniform application of bitumen across the surface.
 Treatment
To remove the streaked surface and apply a new surface
treatment.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
10
6

D. Hungry surface
 Symptoms

Characterised by progressive disintegration of a HMA layer

from the surface as a result of the dislodgement of aggregate.
 Causes

The use of less bitumen in the surfacing.

 Treatment

A slurry seal used as a repair measure.

 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
10
7

2.1.2. Cracks
A. Alligator / Map Cracks

B. Block Cracks

C. Longitudinal Cracks

D. Transverse Cracking

E. Edge Cracks
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
10
8
A. Alligator/Fatigue cracking
Symptoms
It is a series of interconnected cracks which occurs when the
pavement has been stressed to the limit of its fatigue life by repetitive
axle load applications.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
10
9

Formation of Alligator or fatigue cracks

 Cracking begins at the bottom of the surfacing or stabilized base,
where tensile stress and strain are the highest under a wheel load.

 The cracks spread to surface initially as a series of parallel

longitudinal cracks.

 After repeated loading, the longitudinal cracks connect

forming many-sided sharp-angled pieces.

 This pieces are generally less than 0.6m long on the longest side.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
11
0

Causes
Treatment
 Inadequate structural
support  Deep patching, improve
 Exceeded load than the drainage, use seal coat
anticipated design load
as a temporary measure.
 Inadequate structural
design  Strategies depend upon
 Poor construction the severity and extent
 End of pavement life
of the fatigue cracking.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
11
1
B. Block Cracks
Symptoms
 Interconnected cracks which divide
the pavement into rectangular pieces
with a size varying from 0.30 x 0.30
m to 3.0 x 3.0 m.
 Larger blocks are generally classified
as longitudinal & transverse
cracking.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
11
2
Causes Treatment
Inability of asphalt binder to Strategies depend upon the severity and
expand and contract with extent of the crack.
temperature cycles because of:  Low severity cracks (< 12.7 mm wide)
 Asphalt binder aging (hardening)  Crack Seal/Fill: to prevent entry of
Poor choice of asphalt binder in moisture into the sub grade through the
the mix design cracks and Further ravelling of the
crack edges.
 Scrub Seal
 Slurry Seal
 Chip Seal
High severity cracks (> 12.7 mm wide and
cracks with ravelled edges).
•Remove and replace the cracked pavement
layer with an overlay.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
11
3
C. Longitudinal cracks
Symptoms
 Crack running mainly parallel to the centerline, usually type of

fatigue cracking.
 These cracks may be in the wheel paths, between wheel paths

and/or at lane joints such as centerline or shoulder/surface.

 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
11
4

Causes Treatment
 Expansive sub-base/sub-  Crack Seal/Fill
grade  Scrub Seal
 Poor joint construction or
location:
 Chip Seal
 Traffic Loading (wheel path
 Patching
cracks)
 Improper Construction
Practices (joint cracks)
 Environmental (frost action)
 A reflective crack from an
underlying layer
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
11
5

D. Transverse Cracking
Symptoms
Transverse cracks are those considered to extend three-
fourths of the width of the pavement or more.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
11
6

Causes Treatment
 Crack Seal/Fill
 Contraction and Expansion of
 Scrub Seal
Pavement with Changing Temperatures
 Chip Seal
 Swelling or shrinkage of the subgrade
 Patching
 Reflection cracks
 Full-Depth Reclamation
 Settlement (trench, backfill)
 Thick Overlay
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
11
7

E. Edge Cracking
Symptoms
 Edge cracking is similar to alligator cracking only located
within 0.3 to 0.6m of the edge of the pavement.
 Failure begins at the edge of the pavement and progresses
toward the wheel path.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
11
8

Causes
 Traffic Loading
 Environmental
 Construction Related
 Low Shoulder
 High Shoulder Holding Water

Treatment
 Crack Seal/Fill
 Shoulder Maintenance
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
11
9

2.1.3. Deformation
Any change in the shape of the pavement from
its original shape.
A. Rutting (channelling)
B. Corrugation
C. Shoving
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
12
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A. Rutting (channelling):
Symptoms
 A longitudinal surface depression in the
wheel path.
Mix rutting
 Occurs when the sub grade does not rut yet.
 The pavement surface exhibits wheel path
depressions as a result of compaction/mix
design problems.
Sub grade rutting
 occurs when the sub grade exhibits wheel
path depressions due to loading.
 Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle
hydroplaning, can be hazardous.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
12
1

Causes
 Caused by consolidation or lateral movement of the materials due to traffic loading.
 Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during construction.
 Sub grade rutting (e.g., as a result of inadequate pavement structure)
 Insufficient support (a permanent deformation in any of the pavement layers
or the sub-grade.)
 It results from traffic loading concentrated on a narrow width of the
carriageway.
 Overstress in the HMA layers, underlying layers or sub-grade.
 Mix instability
 Improper mix design or manufacture (e.g., excessively high asphalt content,
excessive mineral filler, insufficient amount of angular aggregate particles).
Treatment
 Chip Seal
 Mill
 Thin Hot Mix Overlay
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
12
2

B. Corrugation
Symptoms
Plastic movement characterised by wave
across the pavement surface.
Causes
Usually occur in asphalt pavement mixes
that lack stability.
Treatment
Scarify the surface and apply seal coat or
plant mix.
 Chip Seal
 Mill
 Hot Mix Overlay
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
12
3

C. Shoving
Symptoms
 It is localized Plastic movement in bituminous surface.
 Areas subjected to frequent vehicular braking action can exhibit shoving.
 Bus stops are often the first locations to exhibit premature distortion in the form of
shoving.
Causes
lack of stability in the bituminous mix which could be caused by:
 The mix being too rich
 The aggregate having excessive amount of fines.
 Rounded or smooth textured particles
 Poor bond between material layers
 Slippage between layers
 Braking, stopping or accelerating traffic
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
12
4

Treatment
 Removing the material in the affected area down to a

firm base and laying a stable premix patch.

 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
12
5

2.1.4. Disintegration
A. Stripping
B. Ravelling
C. Pot-hole
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
12
6

A. Stripping
Symptoms
 The loss of bond
between the aggregates
and asphalt cement
 Begins at the bottom
of the HMA layer and
progresses upward.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
12
7

Causes
 Inadequate provision of pavement drainage which
results in intrusion of water in HMA layer.
 Inadequate drying of aggregate.
 Excess dust coating on aggregate.
 Inadequate compaction.

Treatment
 Surface treatment/dressing
 Replacement with fresh bituminous mix.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
12
8

B. Ravelling
Symptoms
 Progressive loss of surface material by
weathering and /or traffic abrasion.
 The progressive disintegration of an
asphalt layer from the surface
downward to the bottom as a result of
the dislodgment of aggregate particles
(Loss of Bond).
 This dislodgment aggregate is caused by
the loss of bond between the aggregate
particle and the asphalt coating.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
12
9
Causes
 Inadequate compaction during construction.
 Low aggregate quality.
 A dust coating on the aggregate particles that forces the asphalt
binder to bond with the dust rather than the aggregate (Aggregate
Segregation).
 Hardening or aging of the asphalt binder in a pavement due to loss
of more volatile parts of the asphalt.
Treatment
Ravelled Surface is treated by adding more quantity of binder.
 Small, localized areas of raveling: remove the raveled pavement and

patch.
 Large raveled areas indicative of general HMA failure: remove the

damaged pavement and overlay

 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
13
0
C. Pot-hole/patching deterioration
 Bowl-shaped holes caused by the loss of surface material.
 Portion of pavement surface, greater than 0.1m2, that has been
removed and replaced or additional material applied to the
pavement after original construction.
Cause
 Poor compaction

 Lack of proper bond between the bituminous surfacing

and the underlying water bound macadam base

Treatment
 In accordance with patching techniques.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
13
1
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
13
2

Rigid pavement distress

A. Blowup (Buckling)
 A localized upward slab movement and shattering at a joint or crack.
 Usually occurs in spring or summer and is the result of insufficient
room for slab expansion during hot weather.
 During cold period (e.g., winter) PCC slab contract leaving wider
joint openings.
 If these openings become filled with incompressible material (such
as rock or soil), subsequently PCC slab expansion during hot period
may cause high compressible stresses.
 If these stresses are great enough, the slab may buckle and shatter to
relieve the stress.
 2.1. Pavement failure/distress (…cont.)
13
3

B. Corner break
 A crack that intersects the PCC slab joints near the corner.
 A corner break extends through the entire slab that is caused by
high corner stresses.
C. Faulting
A difference in elevation across a joint

D. Joint load transfer system deterioration

Transverse crack or corner break developed as a result of joint
dowels.
13
4
 Reconstruction: A comprehensive rebuild of the street. The top layer and the supporting layer(s)
underneath are removed. After removal a new supporting and top layer is put in place.
 Mill/Overlay: The removal of the top layer (2”) of a street by the grinding action of a milling machine.
After the top layer is removed, a new surface layer of pavement is put in place.
 Hot-In-Place Recycle: The removal of the top layer (2") of a street by the grinding action of a large
milling machine. After the top layer is removed, the supporting layer is recycled by adding new bitumen,
scarfing and relaying existing supporting layer. Lastly a new surface layer of pavement is put in place.
 Micromill & Microseal: The removal of the top layer (0.25-inch) of a street by the grinding action of a
milling machine. After the top layer is removed, a new surface layer of pavement is put in place.
 MicroSeal/Slurry Seal: The application of a mixture of water, asphalt emulsion, aggregate (very small
crushed rock) and additives to an existing asphalt pavement surface.
 Seal Coat (GT, HDMB, or PMM): The application of a thin coat of bituminous material applied to the
existing pavement surface. The main purpose is to seal the surface of the pavement and prevent water
and ultraviolent ray damage.
 Rejuvenator: The application of an asphalt rejuvenator to the existing pavement surface. The main
purpose is to rejuvenator the existing asphalt binder to prevent water and ultraviolent ray damage.
 Rejuvenator Plus Ti: The application of an asphalt rejuvenator to the existing pavement surface. The
main purpose is to rejuvenator the existing asphalt binder to prevent water and ultraviolent ray damage.
This rejuvenator leaves a surface that removes nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds and
other pollutants introduced into the atmosphere through vehicular exhaust. The air-purifying surface
perpetually regenerates itself throughout the life of the pavement, contributing to compliance with U.S.
EPA’s stringent new National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS).
 Crack Seal: The process of sealing cracks with a hot rubberized bitumen sealant to the existing
pavement surface. The main purpose is to prevent moisture from finding its way into a road pavement. It
may also be used to seal cracks prior to a surface treatment to slow reflective cracking.
 2.2. Pavement condition survey
13
5
Pavement evaluation
It is a process in which systematic assessment of pavement
condition is carried out to determine its modes of distress and then
propose appropriate treatment.
Pavement performance
 Its relative ability of a road to serve traffic over a period of time

 Pavement performance can be determined by:

 Visual inspection
 Experience
 Technologies that has been invented, refined and upgraded to:
 Establish maintenance priorities
 Determine maintenance and rehabilitation strategies
 Predict pavement performance
 2.2. Pavement condition survey
13
6

Pavement performance is defined by evaluation in the

following categories:
 Surface distress (surface condition survey)
 Roughness ( measure of rideability)
 Skid resistance (traffic safety)
 Structural evaluation (structural failure)

 In the condition survey:

 The type of distress

 Its severity
 Its extent
 2.2. Pavement condition survey (…con.)
13
7

Severity:

Severity-1: indicates the first evidence of a

particular type of distress/low.

Severity-2: indicates a warning condition/moderate

Severity-3: indicates a worst degree (high/sever).
Urgent attention is required.
 2.2. Pavement condition survey (…con.)
13
8
According to ERA condition survey procedure, a condition survey
conducted for a specific project provides information on the road
surface condition at the time of inspection and identifies three damage
levels of two damage categories.
Type-A damage;- which characterizes the structural condition of the
pavement and includes four types:
 Deformation
 Rutting
 Fatigue cracking
 Crazing
 2.2. Pavement condition survey (…con.)
13
9
 2.2. Pavement condition survey (…con.)
14
0
 2.2. Pavement condition survey (…con.)
14
1
 2.2. Pavement condition survey (…con.)
14
2
 2.2. Pavement condition survey (…con.)
14
3
 2.2. Pavement condition survey (…con.)
14
4

Type-B damage
 Caused by either defective placement, or by deficient materials
quality, or by some special local condition, aggravated by
traffic.
 Generally, unrelated to the pavement structural capacity
including;
 Cracking other than fatigue cracking
 Pot holes
 Raveling

 All surfacing defects such as bleeding.

 2.2. Pavement condition survey (…con.)
14
5
 2.3. Road Maintenance
14
6

2.3.1. Pavement maintenance

 It is the function of preserving, repairing, and restoring a
paved or unpaved road surface, traffic signals and signs,
markings and associates road furniture, keeping it in
condition for safe, convenient, and economical use.
 The performance of a pavement is affected by the type,
time of application, and quality of maintenance it receives.
 2.3. Road Maintenance
14
7

Performance
 2.3. Road Maintenance
14
8
Factors affecting pavement
Importance of road maintenance
deterioration rates are:
 Improve road transport facilities
 Traffic load
 Reduce the rate of deterioration  Weather condition
 Delayed  Pavement material
maintenance causes
 Pavement thickness
expensive re-constructions &
 Construction quality
rehabilitation requirements
 Effectiveness of previous
 Effective and timely maintenance
maintenance
will reduce vehicle operating cost,
improve road safety and ensure
transport punctuality
 Enhance the country’s economy
 2.3. Road Maintenance
14
9
 2.3. Road Maintenance
15
0
Classification of Maintenance
 Road maintenance activities can be classified based on the
nature of each activity and the frequency at which they
should be carried out.

A. Routine Maintenance

B. Recurrent Maintenance

C. Periodic Maintenance

D. Urgent Maintenance
 2.3. Road Maintenance
15
1
A. Routine Maintenance is required continually for the general upkeep of the
road what ever its engineering characteristics and traffic volume.
 It is carried out on routine wise & in order to preserve and keep the original
pavement shape. It includes:
 Crack sealing
 Small patching
 Potholes
 Repair of some rutting & depression
 Drain clearing
 Culvert clearing and maintenance
 Clearing, painting & restoring sign post, road furniture and structures
 Grass cutting
 Jungle clearing
 2.3. Road Maintenance
15
2

B. Recurrent Maintenance

These activities may be required at intervals throughout the year

with a frequency depending on the damaging effects of traffic
volume, rain etc.
 Repairing potholes
 Ruts
 Depressions
 Sealing cracks
 Corrections to the edges of pavements and shoulders.
 2.3. Road Maintenance
15
3
C. Periodic Maintenance
 Includes all the maintenance work as mentioned earlier

and in addition to that the overlay of the existing

bituminous surfacing up to a thickness of 50 mm.
 Required at periods of several years depending on the

damaging factor & the standard of maintenance

including;
 Base and surface correction surface application
 Resealing (surface dressing, slurry sealing)
 Grading and re-gravelling of shoulders
 Pavement markings
 2.3. Road Maintenance
15
4

D. Urgent Maintenance
Urgent maintenance covers the items to be carried out
without delay of problems calling for immediate action
to avoid danger to the traffic when road is blocked
including;
 Restoration of flood damage, slides etc.
 Road diversions
 Removal of fallen trees and branches
2.3.2. Effective Road Maintenance Techniques
15
5

I. Maintenance of Road Furniture

 Traffic signs, markings and other furniture are the means of conveying information
about the road to all road users
 They warn, instruct, direct, inform and guide the users
 Hence, their installation and maintenance should be given the highest possible care

Location and Erection of Signs

 Road signs are erected in such a way that the driver has adequate time to read the
message and to take action accordingly
 The sign must fall within the driver's cone of vision
 He should not have to turn his head to see the message
 The background of the sign should make the sign conspicuous
 2.3.2. Effective Road Maintenance Techniques
15
6
Maintenance of Signs Markings
In the maintenance of signs the Pavement markings are normally
following should be performed: made with one or more of the
 Cleaning of signs following:
 Repainting components of sign  Thermoplastics, with/without

 Realigning-badly reflective properties.

 Reflective road studs/
oriented/tilted posts
 Improving visibility of signs decorate& other raised
pavement markers
 2.3.2. Effective Road Maintenance Techniques
15
7

II. Maintenance of Unpaved Roads

Grading
 The task is to improve earth and gravel roads by grading the existing
surface material and to restore the 'camber' by grading the sides and
shoulders towards the centre of the road.
 Grading is normally a routine maintenance task and used to correct
the following defects:
 Loss of shape
 Ruts
 Potholes
 Corrugations
 Erosion gullies
 Silted or blocked ditches
 2.3.2. Effective Road Maintenance Techniques
15
8
The grading requirements depend on Personnel
 Road condition (light or heavy  The categories and numbers of personnel

grading) depend on the equipment resources used.

 Each grading group should include:
 Moisture conditions
 Supervisors
 Compaction requirements  Plant Operators and Drivers
 Available resources  1 operator for each motor grader
 1 driver for each tractor
 1 light vehicle driver
 1 operator for each motorized roller
 1 driver for each water tanker
 2.3.2. Effective Road Maintenance Techniques
15
9

Labour-based reshaping
 The task is to restore the shape of earth and gravel roads
 The task and objects are the same as that of equipment
intensive methods.

Personnel
 1 Supervisor visiting regularly
 1 or 2 supervisors for each section of road
 Workforce
 2.3.2. Effective Road Maintenance Techniques
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0
Patching
 Patching is sometimes required between grading and

reshaping operations, or before grading when the potholes

or depressions are large.
 This maintenance activity consists of removing and

replacing new gravel surfacing material over relatively

small areas.
 The patched area is filled evenly with the gravel to

approximately 3 centimetres above the level of the surface

and is spread and raked to the correct shape.
 The patch is compacted using the roller or hand rammer
 2.3.2. Effective Road Maintenance Techniques
16
1
Signs and Safety Equipment
The following items should be provided where possible.
 Barriers
 Traffic Cones
 Clothing
 Flags
 Traffic Signs
 Reversible 'Stop/Go' signs
 Speed Limit' signs (50 km/hr)
 Men Working' signs
 1 'Road Narrows From Right' sign
 1 'Road Narrows From Left' sign
 'End of Restriction' signs
 2.3.2. Effective Road Maintenance Techniques
16
2
III. Maintenance of Paved Roads
1. Subgrade 6. Surfacing 11. Cutting 16. Ditch inside slope
2. Roadway 7. Road base 12. Base grade/formation level 17. Ditch outside
slope
3. Carriageway 8. Sub-base 13. Original ground level 18. Ditch invert
4. Shoulder 9. Pavement 14. Cutting slope 19. Road centreline

5. Camber/cross fall 10.Embankment 15. Embankment slope 21. V-ditch

Fig. Paved road cross-sections

 2.3.2. Effective Road Maintenance Techniques
16
3

III. Maintenance of Paved Roads

General Repairs
 General repairs are normally a routine maintenance activity.
 They are also carried out in advance of some periodic maintenance operations.
 Covers all types of work on the road pavement of a localised nature and of limited size.
 Must be carried out in a timely manner in order to prevent further deterioration
 Engage simple methods and cover a large range of small work operations.

Objectives
 To improve the surface condition of the road
 To improve the pavement structure

 2.3.2. Effective Road Maintenance Techniques
16
4
Techniques
 Sanding, Local sealing, Crack sealing, Filling depressions and Surface
patching are some of the techniques.
 In the case of surface repairs, bituminous binders, sand and aggregates are
used.
 In the case of repairs to the pavement structure, natural or crushed materials
and cold bituminous mixtures are used.
Defects
On the road surface;
 Wear of the surface layer of the road
 Cracking of the surface layer
 Bleeding of binder to the road surface
On the pavement structure;
 Deformation.
 Potholes.
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Base Patching

This is the treatment that is used to repair:

 Mesh cracking
 Ruts and depressions
 Edge subsidence and rutting edge surface failure
 Potholes
 Shoving
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Four steps are involved in patching process:
1. Sweeping/cleaning and marking out the area to be repaired
 The area must be swept out to clean and dry the surface

 The area to be treated is marked out with chalk

2. Excavation of the area to be repaired.

• To remove all material within the marked area of the road surface.
• To increase the depth of the hole until firm and dry material is found
and then trim the walls of the hole so that they are vertical and solid.
• If water or excessive moisture is present, then arrangements must be
made to drain it away from the pavement foundation.
• Trim the bottom of the hole such that it is flat, horizontal and free
from loose material. Then compact it.
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3. Backfilling the hole
The hole is filled with a selected well graded material brought to the
site and the material can consist either:
 A material of the same quality as that of the base layer that is to be
repaired
 The material is placed in the hole and compacted in one or more
layers of regular thickness depending on the depth involved.
4. Resealing
The repair must be sealed to prevent penetration of water.
 2.3.2. Effective Road Maintenance Techniques
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IV. Drainage Surveys
 Poor drainage causes poor pavement performance
 Water on a pavement can;
 Create a hazard to motorists
 Saturate the subgrade soil
 Deteriorate the pavement
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V. Traffic Control and Safety Devices

 Traffic control devices includes road signs, guide-posts, kilometers
markers, guardrails and pavement markings.
 In order to serve their intended functions, traffic control devices

should be kept in a condition similar to that at the original

installation.
Maintenance of traffic control devices includes:
 Routine activities: cleaning, repainting and repairing in the

workshop
 Periodic activities: replacing guardrails, pavement markings,
replacing traffic signs and repairing or relocating kilometers
markers.
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Rehabilitation is a work undertaken to significantly
extend the service life of an existing pavement.
 Includes overlay and pre-overlay repairs, complete

removal and reconstruction of existing pavement, or

recycling of a part of existing materials.
 Rehabilitation is methods subdivided in to two,

1. Rehabilitation methods with overlays

 Construction of one or more asphalt courses on the

existing pavement.
 It includes a levelling course, followed by a uniform

course to provide needed thickness.

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2. Rehabilitation methods other than overlays include:
 Reconstruction:

The materials needed for the rehabilitation will be mostly

new materials.
 Recycling:

The rehabilitation takes advantage of the existing pavement

materials
 Major rehabilitation methods that may be employed as

non-overlay techniques include:

Full-depth repair
Partial depth patching
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 Rehabilitation Techniques and Strategies
 Rehabilitation techniques are classified as:
1. Corrective: involves the permanent or temporary repair of
deficiencies on an as-needed basis.

2. Preventive: involves surface applications of either structural

or non structural improvements
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 Pavement rehabilitation strategies
 Pavement rehabilitation strategies can be categorized in a variety
of ways:
i. In terms of the problem being solved, such as skid resistance,
surface drainage, unevenness, roughness, or cracking.
ii. In terms of the type of treatment used, such as surface treatment,
overlay, or recycle.
iii. In terms of the type of surface that will result from the process,
such as asphalt overlay, rock seal coat, or liquid seal coat.
iv. In terms of a final product and cost, it enables the designer to
consider each maintenance alternative and then select the most
appropriate one.
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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2.4.2. Determination of damage index (Is)

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 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Damage index (Is): it is divided into three ranges:
 Rating 1 or 2: little or no cracking or deformation: good
surface condition requiring no (or only just requiring)
immediate maintenance.
 Rating 3 or 4: cracks with little or no deformation, or
deformation without cracking; intermediate surface condition.
Bad enough to trigger maintenance work in the absence of any
other consideration.
 Rating 5, 6, or 7: extensive cracking and deformation: poor
surface condition requiring major maintenance or overlay work.
Deflection: it is also divide into three ranges;
d1- value below which pavement performance is generally good
d2- value above which pavement performance is poor
d1-d2-range of indecision.
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Pavement quality rating (Qi)
Three main ranges have to be considered:
Q1, Q2 & Q3: no major rehabilitation work is required. The road works to be
performed include routine maintenance and/or period maintenance.
Q4, Q5 and Q6: this is a zone of indetermination for which the index Is and the
deflection value seem inconsistent. These cases should be further examined and
eventually reclassified the procedure is as follows:
Q4: pavement with marked damage in spite of a good bearing capacity. the validity
of the deflection measurement should be checked together with the nature of the
damages. Q4 will be then reclassified as either Q2 (priority to deflection) or Q7
(priority to damage).
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Q5: allowance will be made for the position of the deflection with
respect to the limits and the traffic then it may be reclassified as
either Q3, Q7, or Q8.
Q6: pavement having a large deflection value without seeming
damage; Checking the age of the pavement or the date of the
most recent work together with the traffic level it may be
reclassified as Q3 or Q8.
Q7, Q8 and Q9: these ratings mean that the pavement requires an
overlay, the thickness of which is determined by the traffic.
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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18
0
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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2.4.2. Overlays Design
The condition of the pavement is assessed by conducting pavement
condition surveys by:
 Individual rating/roughness

 PSI

 To provide strength to the pavement, a new layer of material and

thickness design is put over the existing surface. This added layer
is called an “overlay”.
 The condition surveys or evaluation surveys, determine the

structural adequacy of the pavement.

 Thus it is determined that whether surface maintenance is

adequate or overlays are necessary in view of expected traffic.

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Overlays may be required due to variety of reasons such as:
 A pavement may have been damaged by overloading or
heavy traffic
 A pavement may require strengthening by overlaying to
serve heavier traffic than that for which pavement was
originally designed.
 A pavement which is worn-out after serving its design
life
 To improve the riding quality of the pavement.
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Type of Material for Overlay
 The type of material for overlay depends on factors such as:

 Importance of the road

 Design Traffic

 Thickness and condition of the existing pavement

 Construction convenience

 Economy

 The existing surface is to be corrected and brought to proper

profile by filling pot holes, ruts and undulations

 No part of the overlay thickness shall not be used for the

correction of surface irregularities.

 2.4. Rehabilitation
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 Asphalt overlays may be used to correct both surface &
structural deficiencies.
 Surface deficiencies in asphalt pavements usually are
corrected by thin resurfacings (functional overlays),
 Structural deficiencies require overlays designed on
factors such as pavement properties and traffic loadings
(structural overlays).
 Thin overlays usually range from 1cm to 5 cm thick using
a fine-grained top size dense mix. These are considered
maintenance.
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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The structural overlay is needed when the following

condition exists:
 A large amount of very severe cracking
 Excessive rutting which can be attributed to
unstable existing materials
 Seriously deteriorated stabilized road base requiring

an excessive amount of repairs prior to overlay

operations.
 Contaminated granular road base
 Excessive stripping of the existing AC surface
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Two method of overlay design are recommended:
A. Deflection method and B. Effective thickness
method Procedure
A. Deflection
 The structural strength of a pavement is assessed by

measuring surface deflections under a standard axle load.

 Larger pavement deflections imply weaker pavement and

subgrade.
 The overlay must be thick enough to reduce the

deflection to a tolerable amount.

 Rebound deflections are measured with the help of a

Benkelman Beam
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Asphalt Overlays of Flexible Pavements (…cont.)
A. Deflection Procedure
The steps involved in the procedure are:

Step 1: Determine a representative rebound deflection,

(RRD = (x + 2s) c)

Step 2: Determine the design future traffic (ESAs).

Step 3: Determine the required overlay thickness.

 The individual deflection measurements recorded

during the deflection survey must be adjusted by a

factor.
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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 Specifications for Measurement

 Condition survey and deflection data are used to establish sections of
uniform performance.
 At least 10 deflection measurements should be made for each section per
lane subject to a minimum of 20 measurements per km.
 If the highest or the lowest deflection values for the section differ from the
mean by more than one-third of the mean, then extra deflection measurement
should be made at 25 m on either side of point where high or low values are
observed.
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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 Corrections for Deflections
Temperature Correction
 Stiffness of the Bituminous layers get affected due to T  change, which could vary deflections.

 Correction at standard temperature 35C is 0.1mm.

 Correction for temperature variation on deflection values measured at pavement temperature other
than 35C should be 0.01mm for each degree change from the standard temperature.
Correction for Seasonal Variation
 Deflection depends upon the change in the climate.

 Worst climate (after rainy season), considered for design.

 Correction for seasonal variation depends on type of soil subgrade (sandy/gravelly or Clayey with
PI<15 or Clayey with PI>15), field moisture content, average annual rain fall (<1300 mm or >1300
mm)
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Temperature adjustment factor for Benkelman Beam Deflection

 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Seasonal Correction Factor (clayey subgrade, PI>15, rainfall>1300)

 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Computation of Design Traffic

 2.4. Rehabilitation
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General Design of Overlay

 Design curves relating characteristic pavement deflection to the cumulative number of

standard axles are to be used.

 The Deflection of the pavement after the corrections i.e., characteristic Deflection

is to be used for the design purposes.

 The design traffic in terms of cumulative standard number of axles is to be used.

 The thickness obtained from the curves is in terms of bituminous macadam construction.

 If other compositions are to be laid then

 1 cm of Bituminous Macadam = 1.5 cm of WBM/Wet Mix Macadam

 1 cm of Bituminous Macadam = 0.7 cm of DBM/AC

 2.4. Rehabilitation
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 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Examples: 1
 Rebound deflections were measured for a section of asphalt pavement under
uniform temperature conditions.
 The measurements were made under an 8.2 tonne axle load and the
pavement temperature was estimated to be 17° C.
 The untreated aggregate road base of the pavement was 152 mm thick.
 The measurements were made at the end of the rainy season and may
reasonably be considered to be representative of the critical period, hence c
= 1.0. Individual and adjusted measurements, and calculated representative
deflection, are given below:
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Solution

Step 1:

Step 2:
The traffic analysis outlined above and further detailed in the ERA Pavement Design Manual, Vol. 1-

2002 (Ref. 1) is to be used to determine the design number of equivalent standard axles (ESAs)

expected to be carried by the road after overlay. It is supposed to be 5 x E6 ESAs.

 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Step 3:
To find the thickness of asphalt concrete overlay required, use the overlay thickness design
chart, Figure 4.2, with the RRD obtained in Step 1, move vertically to the curve
representing the design ESA (from Step 2), and move horizontally to the overlay thickness
scale.

Characteristic deflection = 0.673 + (2 x 0.13) = 0.933mm

Temperature correction: 0.01 (35 – 17) = 0.18mm
Characteristic deflection after temperature correction = 0.93 + 0.18 = 1.10mm
Seasonal correction factor, c=1
RRD = 1.10 x 1 = 1.10mm
 The pavement considered in the example in Step 1 is being considered for a future traffic
of 5 x E6 ESAs.
 With a RRD of 1.10 mm, the required overlay thickness is found from the chart to be
100 mm of AC.
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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B. Effective Analysis Procedure
 Each layer in the existing pavement is converted to an equivalent thickness of ‘asphaltic concrete’
by applying a conversion factor, based on the layer’s condition.

 The sum of the equivalent thicknesses for each layer is subtracted from the design thickness of a

new full depth asphalt pavement (for the future traffic loading) to give the required overlay

thickness.
 The required thickness of AC overlay is computed as:

Where
To= required overlay thickness in centimeters

SNnew= structural number of a new pavement (cm)

SNeff= effective structural number of the existing pavement (cm)

ao = structural coefficient of the AC overlay (for new pavement, usually use 0.44)
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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SNnew is required in the component analysis procedure to determine required

asphalt overlay thickness. It is computed in three steps as follows:

Step 1:
 Select an appropriate required structure of a new pavement for the specific
Subgrade strength and traffic applicable to the project
The structure selected is characterized by the thicknesses Ti of its component
layers
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Step2:
To each of the layers determined in Step1, assign an appropriate structural layer
coefficient ai.
The following structural layer coefficients are recommended:
 Bituminous surface: a1 = 0.44
 Bituminous road base: a1 = 0.30 (note: use 0.25 for in-place recycled materials)
 Cement or lime stabilized road base: a2 = 0.15 to 0.20
 Granular road base: a2 = 0.14
 Cement or lime stabilized sub base: a3 = 0.12
 Granular sub base: a3 = 0.11
 Granular capping layer: a3 = 0.09
Step3: compute SNnew as:
SNnew = a1T1 + a2T2 + a3T3
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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SNeff requires knowing the existing pavement structure and using the
equation:

SNeff = a1T1 + a2T2m2 + a3T3m3

Where
 T1, T2, T3 = thicknesses (in centimetres) of existing pavement surface,
road base, and sub base layers
 a1, a2, a3 = corresponding structural layer coefficients
 m2, m3 = drainage coefficients for granular road base and sub base
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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 2.4. Rehabilitation
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 2.4. Rehabilitation
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 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Example-2
Design the overlay thickness of asphalt concrete based on the following
information:
 The anticipated future traffic and Subgrade strength class is T6 and
S4 respectively.
 Thickness of new pavement
 100 mm AC surfacing
 200 mm granular road base
 175 mm sub base
 Thickness of existing pavement
 50 mm AC surfacing
 150 mm granular road base
 150 mm sub base
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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 Condition of old pavement layers:
 The AC surface shows less than 10 percent of low-severity cracking, very little
medium and high severity transverse cracking, and can be assigned a structural
layer coefficient a1 of 0.30.
 Road base and sub base courses show no evidence of degradation or
contamination.
 The coefficients a2 and a3 may both be taken as 0.12.
 The quality of drainage considered fair and the pavement structure is exposed
to levels near saturation on the order of 5%. Both coefficients m1 and m2 can
be taken as 1.00.
 2.4. Rehabilitation
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Solution:
SNnew = a1T1 + a2T2 + a3T3

= 0.44 x 100 + 0.14 x 200 + 0.11 x 175

= 91.25 mm

SNeff = a1T1 + a2T2m2 + a3T3m3

= 0.30 x 50 + 0.12 x 1.00 x (150 + 150)

= 51.00 mm

The required thickness of AC overlay is computed as:

= (91.25 - 51.00) / 0.44

= 91.5 mm