PRODUCTION OF RADIONUCLIDES

Ms.Fauzia khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Radio Imaging
Technology
Integral University
 INTRODUCTION
 In 1896, Becquerel discovered the natural radioactivity in potassium
uranyl sulphate
 Artificial radioactivity was first reported by Curie and F. Joliot in 1934
 Atomic number greater than 83 (bismuth) are radioactive

Radionuclides are made by bombarding nuclei of stable atoms

with sub nuclear particles (such as neutrons and protons) so as to
cause nuclear reactions that convert a stable nucleus into an
unstable (radioactive) one.
 RADIONUCLIDE PRODUCTION

 All radio nuclides commonly administered to patients in nuclear medicine

are artificially produced

 Most are produced by cyclotrons ,nuclear reactors, or radionuclide

generators
 Most of the naturally occurring radionuclides are very long-lived
(Uranium and radium)

 The first applications of radioactivity for medical tracer studies in the

1920s and 1930s made use of natural radionuclides

 The radionuclides used in modern nuclear medicine all are of the

manufactured or “artificial” variety
 METHODS OF PRODUCTION

I. REACTOR-PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES

II. ACCELERATOR-PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES

III. RADIONUCLIDE GENERATORS

REACTOR-PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES
 FISSION AND FUSION

• Nuclear fission is the splitting of a nucleus into two or more smaller

nuclei

• Nuclear fusion is the joining of two nuclei to form the heavier nuclei
 REACTOR PRINCIPLE

 The core of a nuclear reactor contains a quantity of fissionable

material typically natural 235U and 238U

 U undergoes spontaneous nuclear fission , splitting into two lighter

235

nuclear fragments and emitting into two or three fission neutrons

 235
U+n = 236U
REACTOR PRINCIPLE

 The 236U nucleus is highly unstable and

undergoes nuclear fission
 Releasing additional fission neutrons
 Instead of this uncontrolled reaction, in nuclear

reactor establishes a controlled nuclear reaction

REACTOR- PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES
 REACTOR- PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES

• Fuel cells- containing fissionable material are surrounded by a moderate

material

• Moderator- To slow down the energetic fission materials. Commonly

used moderators are heavy water, D20 (containing deuterium) and
graphite

• Control rods- To either expose or shield the fuel cells from one another-
so that critical condition for controlled chain reaction can avoid
REACTOR- PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES REACTOR PRINCIPLE

 The fuel cells and the control rods incorrect

positioning leads a ‘runaway’ reaction and to a
possible melt down of the reactor core

 Insertion of additional control rods results in excess

absorption of neutrons and usually done to shut
down the reactor
REACTOR- PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES

 Each nuclear fission event results in release of substantial amount of

energy ,as thermal energy (200-300 MeV per fission fragment)

 This energy can be used as thermal power source in reactors

 REACTOR- PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES

2. FISSION FRAGMENTS

 Fission process is produce useful quantities of medically important

radionuclides such as 99Mo

 Fission products always have an excess of neutrons, because N/Z is

higher for 235U, than fission fragment

 These radionuclides tend to decay by ẞ¯ particle emission

 REACTOR- PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES

FISSION FRAGMENTS
 Fission products may be carrier free
(no stable isotope of the element)

 Therefore radionuclides can be

produced with increase in activity by
chemical separation
 REACTOR- PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES
FISSION FRAGMENTS

METHODS
 Radionuclides produced in fission process and subsequently extracted by
chemical separation from the fission fragment

 Second method for producing radio nuclide uses large neutron flux in the
reactor to activate sample situated around the reactor core
 REACTOR- PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES

NEUTRON ACTIVATION
 Neutron carry no net charge ,neither attracted nor repelled by atomic
nuclei

 When neutrons strike a target, some of the neutrons are captured by

nuclei of the target atom

 Target nucleus may be converted into a radioactive product

 Such an event is called NEUTRON ACTIVATION

 TWO TYPES OF REACTIONS COMMONLY OCCUR
 In an (n,γ) reaction a target nucleus captures a neutron and is converted into
a product nucleus

 Which is formed in an excited state. The product nucleus immediately

undergoes de-excitation to its ground state by emitting a prompt γ ray
 A second type of reaction is the (n,p) reaction

 In this case, the target nucleus captures a neutron and promptly ejects a
proton.
II. ACCELERATOR -
PRODUCED
RADIONUCLIDES
 ACCELRATOR-PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES

1. CHARGED PARTICLE ACCELERATORS

 Used to accelerate eclectically charged particles, such as proton,

deuterons & alpha particle to very high energies

 Particles must have very high energy of 10-20 MeV, to penetrate the
repulsive coulomb forces surrounding the nucleus

 Van de Graff, linear accelerators, cyclotrons, variations of cyclotron have

been used to accelerate the particle
 ACCELERATOR - PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES
CYCLOTRONS
 A cyclotron consists of a pair of hollow
semicircular metal electrodes – DEES

 Positioned between the poles of a large

electromagnet

 Dees are separated from one another by a narrow

gap, center of the dees is an ion source ‘S’- used to
generate the charged particles in a vacuum tank
 ACCELERATOR - PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES
CYCLOTRONS
 The particles are accelerated across the
gap gaining about 30kv of energy

 They continue a circular path within the

opposite dees

 Each time particles across the gap gain

energy

 Orbital radius continuously increase and

the particles follow an spiraling path
 TARGET AND ITS PROCESSING

 The targets are designed in the form of a foil to maximize the heat
dissipation

 The common form of the target is metallic foil, for example, copper,
aluminium, uranium, vanadium, and so on

 Other forms of targets are oxides, carbonates, nitrates, and chlorides

contained in an aluminium tubing which is then flattened
 ACCELERATOR - PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES
CYCLOTRONS

DEES

TARGET
 ACCELERATOR - PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES
CYCLOTRONS

 The energy of the particle accelerated in a cyclotron can be calculated by:

E(MeV)= 4.8×10-3 (H×R×Z)2/A

 Where H-magnetic field strength in T

R- radius of particle orbit in cm
Z – atomic no of the accelerated particle
A- mass no of the accelerated particle
 ACCELERATOR - PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES
CYCLOTRONS

 Physical half-life of radionuclides for clinical applications

preferably min to hr

 Specialized hospital-based cyclotrons have been developed to

produce positron-emitting radionuclides for positron emission
tomography (PET)
 ACCELERATOR - PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES
CYCLOTRONS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RADIONUCLIDES

Radionuclide Half Life

⁸2Rb 1.25 min
¹⁵O 2.07 min
¹³N 10.0 min
¹¹C 20.3 min
¹⁸F 110 min
⁹⁹Tc 6.03 hr
¹2³I 13.0 hr
⁶⁷Ga 3.26 d
³2 P 14.3 d
⁸⁹Sr 50.5 d
III. GENERATOR - PRODUCED
RADIONUCLIDES
 GENERATOR - PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES
RADIONUCLIDE GENERATORS

 A system for holding the parent in such a way that the daughter can be easily separated
for clinical use is called a radionuclide generator

 Consists of a parent daughter radionuclide pair contained in a container

 Permits separation and extraction of the daughter from the parent

 99m
Tc has been the most important radionuclide used in nuclear medicine
 GENERATOR - PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES

CHARACTERISTICS(ADVANTAGE)
 99m
Tc emits γ rays, favorable for use with a gamma camera

 Reasonable half life-6hrs

 Low radiation dose per emitted γ ray

 Can be used to label a wide variety of imaging agents

DISADVANTAGE
• Tc 99m has short half life
• Not practical to transport
 GENERATOR - PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES

 The parent 99Mo in the form of molybdate ion

 MoO2- is bound to an alumina column

 The daughter 99m

TcO4 (pertechnetate) is not as

strongly bound to alumina

 This can be eluted from the column with 5 to

25ml of normal saline

 75% to 85% of the available 99mTc

 SUMMARY

 The discovery of the cyclotron, neutron, and deuteron by various

scientists facilitated the production of many more artificial radioactivity
 At present, more than 2700 radionuclides have been produced artificially
in the cyclotron, the reactor, the neutron generator, and the linear
accelerator
 Radionuclides used in nuclear medicine are mostly artificial ones
 REFERENCE

 Physics In Nuclear Medicine, 4th Edition by Simon R. Cherry, PhD, James

A. Sorenson, PhD and Michael E. Phelps, PhD

 The physics of Radiology and imaging by K Thyalan

 THANK
YOU!!!!!!!