UNIT-2

Introduction to Embedded System

Introduction to Embedded Systems
 Contents

 Definition of Embedded System

 Embedded Systems Vs General Computing Systems
 History of Embedded Systems
 Classification of Embedded Systems
 Major Application Areas
 Purpose of Embedded Systems
 Characteristics and Quality Attributes of Embedded Systems.
GET READY
Introduction to Embedded System
EMBEDDED SYSTEM
What is Embedded System?
 Embedded system is an Electronic/Electro mechanical
system which is designed to perform a specific function
and is a combination of both hardware and firmware
(Software)

SOFTWARE PROGRAM
#include <16f876a.h>

HARDWARE #use delay (clock=20000000)

#byte PORTB=6
main()
{
set_tris_b(0);
portb=255; //decimal
delay_ms(1000);
portb=0x55; //hexadecimal
delay_ms(1000);
portb=0b10101010; //binary
delay_ms(500);
9 }
 “An embedded system is a system that has software embedded
into computer-hardware, which makes a system dedicated for an
application (s) or specific part of an application or product or
part of a larger system.”
(OR)
 An embedded system is one that has dedicated purpose software
embedded in computer hardware.
(OR)
 It is a dedicated computer based system for an application(s) or
product. It may be an independent system or a part of large
system. Its software usually embeds into a ROM (Read Only
Memory) or flash.”
(OR)
 It is any device that includes a programmable computer but is
not itself intended to be a general purpose computer.”

In simple words, Embedded System = (Hardware + Software)

dedicated for a particular task with its own memory.
Introduction to Embedded System
Examples of Embedded System?
 Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air
Conditioners, Automotive Control Units, Set Top Box, DVD
Player etc…,

Embedded Systems are:

 Unique in character and behavior
 With specialized hardware and software
An embedded system is a combination of three major components:
Hardware: It comprises of microcontroller based integrated circuit,
power supply, LCD display etc.
Application software and firmware: Firmware is a type of software that
is directly coded into the processor of an embedded system most often
used to control the hardware. : Application software allows the user to
perform varieties of applications to be run on an embedded system by
changing the code installed in an embedded system.
Real Time Operating system (RTOS): RTOS supervises the way an
embedded system work. It acts as an interface between hardware and
application software which supervises the application software and
provide mechanism to let the processor run on the basis of scheduling. .
RTOS defines the way the system works. It sets the rules during the
execution of application program. A small scale embedded system may
not have RTOS.
 Embedded Systems Vs General Computing Systems
General Purpose computing System Embedded SystemsSystem
•A system which is a combination of generic •A system which is a combination of special purpose
hardware and General Purpose Operating hardware and embedded OS for executing a specific
System for executing a variety of set of applications.
applications.
•Contain a General Purpose Operating •May or may not contain an operating system for
System (GPOS) functioning
•Applications are alterable (programmable) •The firmware of the embedded system is pre-
by user (It is possible for the end user to re- programmed and it is non-alterable by end-user
install the Operating System, and add or
remove user applications)

•Performance is the key deciding factor on •Application specific requirements (like

the selection of the system. Always ‘Faster performance, power requirements, memory usage
is Better’ etc) are the key deciding factors
•Less/not at all tailored towards reduced •Highly tailored to take advantage of the power
operating power requirements, options for saving modes supported by hardware and
different levels of power management. Operating System
•Response requirements are not time •For certain category of embedded systems like
critical mission critical systems, the response time
requirement is highly critical
•Need not be deterministic in execution •Execution behavior is deterministic for certain type
behavior of embedded systems like ‘Hard Real Time’ systems
 History of Embedded Systems:

 In the older days Embedded Systems were built around the old vacuum tube
and transistor technologies and the embedded algorithms were developed
in low-level languages.
 Advances in semiconductor and nano-technology and the IT revolution gave
a thrust to the development of miniature embedded systems.
 First Recognized Modern Embedded System: Apollo Guidance Computer
(AGC) developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation
Laboratory.
 It has two modules
 1.Command module(CM)
 2.Lunar Excursion module(LEM)
 The Command Module was designed to encircle the moon while the Lunar
Excursion Module and its crew members were to go down to the moon
surface and land there safely.
 Autonetics D-17 was the first mass-production Embedded System. It was the
guidance computer for the Minuteman-I missile in 1961.
 History of Embedded Systems:

 In the older days Embedded Systems were built around the old
vacuum tube and transistor The Volkswagen (VW) 1600 introduced
the first embedded system for a car in 1968, using a microprocessor
to manage its electronic fuel injection system.
 In 1987, the first embedded OS, the real-time VxWorks, was released
by Wind River, followed by Microsoft's Windows Embedded CE in
1996.
 By the late 1990s, the first embedded Linux products began to
appear. Today, Linux is used in almost all embedded devices.
 The 2010s saw an increased focus on security features in embedded
devices, possibly driven by the rise of IoT and connected devices.
 Today, due to technological advancements, embedded systems have
also begun to integrate with AI and machine learning (ML) systems.
Also called embedded AI, this is the integration of AI into resource-
limited devices such as smartphones or autonomous vehicles.
 Classification of Embedded Systems:

 1.Based on Generation.
 2.Based on Complexity & Performance Requirements.

 3.Based on deterministic behavior.

 4.Based on Triggering.
1.Classification based on Generation

 First Generation: The earlier first-generation embedded

systems were built around 8-bit microprocessors and 4-bit
microcontrollers.
 Such embedded system possess simple hardware and
firmware developed using assembly code.
 EX. stepper motor control units, Digital Telephone Keypads
etc.,
Second Generation: These are embedded systems built
around 16bit microprocessors and 8 or 16-bit
microcontrollers, following the first generation embedded
systems.
They are more powerful and complex compared to previous
generation processors.
EX.SCADA, Data Acquisition Systems etc.,
1.Classification based on Generation

Third Generation Embedded Systems built around high

performance 32-bit Microprocessors/16-bit Microcontrollers,
Application Specific Instruction set processors like Digital Signal
Processors (DSPs), and Application Specific Integrated Circuits
(ASICs).
The instruction set is complex and powerful.
EX. Robotics, industrial process control embedded networking
etc. ,
Fourth Generation: Embedded Systems built around System on
Chips (SoCs), Re-configurable processors and multicore processors.
These systems also make use of the high-performance real-time
operating system for their operation.
It brings high performance, tight integration and miniaturization
into the embedded device market .
EX Smart devices, IOT devices etc.,
 2.Classification based on Complexity &
Performance

Small Scale: The Embedded Systems built around low

performance and low cost 8 or 16 bit microprocessors/
microcontrollers with on-chip RAM and ROM .
Embedded systems which are simple in application
needs and where the performance requirements are
not time critical fall under this category.
It may or may not contain OS.
Examples: mp3 player, digital camera,Electronic Toy
etc…
2.Classification based on Complexity &
Performance
Medium Scale: Embedded Systems built around
medium performance, low cost 16 or 32 bit
microprocessors / microcontrollers with external RAM
and ROM or DSPs that can perform more complex
operations is a Medium scale embedded system.
These are slightly complex in hardware and firmware.
It may contain GPOS/RTOS.
Examples: Routers used in networking, Multimedia
systems, Voice Recognition Systems
2.Classification based on Complexity &
Performance
Large Scale/Complex: Embedded Systems built around high
performance 32 or 64 bit RISC processors/controllers,
Reconfigurable system on chip (RSoC) or multicore processors
which can perform distributed jobs is considered as a Large scale
embedded system.
 It requires complex hardware and software.
It contains a high performance RTOS for task scheduling,
prioritization and management.
Examples: Missile Guidance System, Aircraft Navigation
Systems
 3.Based on deterministic behavior
Real time embedded system: An embedded system which gives the
required output in a specified time or which strictly follows the time
deadlines for completion of a task is known as a Real time system. A
Real Time system in addition to functional correctness, also satisfies
the time constraints.
Classified into two types
1.Soft Real time Systems: A Real time system in which, the violation
of time constraints will cause only the degraded quality, but the
system can continue to operate is known as a Soft real time system.
 Missing a deadline may not be critical and can be tolerated to a
certain degree.
In soft real-time systems, the design focus is to offer a guaranteed
bandwidth to each real-time task and to distribute the resources to
the tasks.
Examples: Printers, scanners , Fax machines, TV remote etc.
 3.Based on deterministic behavior
2.Hard Real time systems:
A Real time system in which, the violation of time constraints will
cause critical failure and loss of life or property damage or
catastrophe is known as a Hard Real time system.
The chip selection and RTOS selection become important factors
for hard real-time system design.

Examples: Deadline in a missile control embedded system ,

Delayed alarm during a Gas leakage , car airbag control
system
4.Based on Triggering
Classified into two types:
1.Event Triggered: If the system is triggered based on some activity
like change in temperature or change in pressure, such system is said
to be an event triggered embedded system.
 Activities within the system (e.g., task run-times) are dynamic and
depend upon occurrence of different events.
Eg: Automotive Airbag System
2.Time Triggered: If a system is activated or triggered based on some
preset time, then such a system is said to be the time-triggered
embedded system.
Activities within the system follow a statically computed schedule
(i.e., they are allocated time slots during which they can take place)
and thus by nature are predictable.
Eg: Automated Irrigation Systems, Washing Machines
Purpose of Embedded Systems
Each Embedded Systems is designed to serve the purpose
of any one or a combination of the following tasks.

Data Collection/Storage/Representation

Data Communication

Data (Signal) Processing

Monitoring

Control

Application Specific User Interface

1.Data Collection/Storage/Representation:

 Embedded Systems designed for the purpose of data

collection perform acquisition of data from the external
world.
 Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis ,
manipulation and transmission.
 The data may be text, audio, video or any physical
quantities.
 The collected data can be either analog or digital .
 Embedded systems with analog data capturing
techniques collect data directly in the form of analog
signals whereas embedded systems with digital data
collection mechanism converts the analog signal to
corresponding digital signal using A/D converters.
 1.Data Collection/Storage/Representation:

 The collected data may be stored directly in the system or may be

transmitted to some other systems or it may be processed by the
system or it may be deleted instantly after giving a meaningful
representation.
 These actions are purely dependant on the purpose for which the
embedded system is designed.
 A digital camera is a typical example of an embedded system with
data collection/storage/representation of data.
 Images are captured and the captured
images may be stored within the memory
of the camera. The captured image can be
presented to the user through a graphic
LCD unit.
2.Data Communication
• Embedded Data communication systems are deployed in
applications ranging from complex satellite
communication systems to simple home networking
systems
• Embedded Data communication systems are dedicated for
data communication
• The data communication can happen through a wired
interface (like Ethernet, RS-232C/USB/IEEE1394 etc) or
wireless interface (like Wi-Fi, GSM,/GPRS, Bluetooth,
ZigBee etc)
 Embedded systems used for data collection can also used
for data communication.
2.Data Communication
Eg: Wearable health monitoring devices, such as fitness
trackers and medical implants, often incorporate
embedded systems for collecting biometric data (such as
heart rate, blood pressure, or blood glucose levels) from
sensors.
These systems can also communicate this data to smart
phones, tablets, or cloud servers for further analysis and
storage.
Certain Embedded systems act as dedicated transmission
unit between sending and receiving terminals.
 Eg:Routers and Switches.
3.Data (Signal) Processing
• Embedded systems with Signal processing functionalities
are employed in applications demanding signal
processing like Speech coding, synthesis, audio video
codec, transmission applications etc..,
• A digital hearing aid is a typical example of an
embedded system employing data processing.
• Digital hearing aid improves the hearing capacity of
hearing impaired person
Computational intensive systems employ Digital
Signal Processors (DSPs)
3.Data (signal) Processing
4.Monitoring
• Embedded systems coming under this category are specifically
designed for monitoring purpose
• They are used for determining the state of some variables using
input sensors
• They cannot impose control over variables.
• All embedded products coming under the medical domain are with
monitoring functions. They cannot impose control over variables.
• Electro Cardiogram (ECG) machine for monitoring the heart beat of
a patient is a typical example for this
• The sensors used in ECG are the different Electrodes connected to
the patient’s body
• Measuring instruments like Digital CRO, Digital Multi meter, Logic
Analyzer etc used in Control & Instrumentation applications are also
examples of embedded systems for monitoring purpose.
4.Monitoring: Medical
EQUIPMENT
5.Control
• Embedded systems with control functionalities are used for imposing
control over some variables according to the changes in input variables
• Embedded system with control functionality contains both sensors and
actuators.
• Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in
environmental variable or measuring variable
• The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to
the changes in input variable to put an impact on the controlling
variable to bring the controlled variable to the specified range
• Air conditioner for controlling room temperature is a typical example for
embedded system with ‘Control’ functionality.
• Air conditioner contains a room temperature sensing element (sensor)
which may be a thermistor and a handheld unit for setting up (feeding)
the desired temperature
• The air compressor unit acts as the actuator. The compressor is
controlled according to the current room temperature and the desired
temperature set by the end user.
5.Control:
Application Specific User Interface
 Embedded systems which are designed for a specific application
Contains Application Specific User interface like key board, Display
units etc
 Aimed at a specific target group of users
 Mobile handsets, Control units in industrial applications etc are
examples for this.
 In mobile phone the user interface is provided through the keypad,
system speaker, display screen, vibration alert etc.
Major Application Areas of Embedded
Systems
 Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.

 Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, Washing

machine, Fridge, Microwave Oven etc.

 Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners,

sprinklers, Intruder detection alarms, Closed Circuit
Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.

 Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS),

Engine Control, Ignition Systems, Automatic Navigation
Systems etc.

 Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset

Multimedia Applications etc.
Systems
 Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
 Computer Networking Systems : Network Routers, Switches,
Hubs, Firewalls etc.
 HealthCare: Different Kinds of Scanners, EEG, ECG Machines
etc.
 Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, Digital
CROs, Logic Analyzers PLC systems etc.

 Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and

Currency counters, Point of Sales (POS)

 Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand held

Devices etc.
System
Embedded systems possess certain specific characteristics and
these are unique to each embedded system.
1. Application and domain specific
2. Reactive and Real Time
3. Operates in harsh environments
4. Distributed
5. Small Size and weight
6. Power concerns
1. Application and domain specific
An embedded system is designed for a specific purpose only.
Each E.S has certain functions to perform and they are developed in such a manner
to do the intended functions only.
They cannot be used for any other purpose.
Ex. A washing machine can only wash, it cannot cook
Certain embedded systems are specific to a domain:
Ex. A hearing aid is an application that belongs to the domain of signal processing.
Ex – The embedded control units of the microwave oven cannot be replaced with
AC’s embedded control unit because the embedded control units of microwave
oven and AC are
specifically designed to perform certain specific tasks.e embedded control
units of the microwave oven cannot be replaced with AC’S
embedded control unit because the embedded control
units of microwave oven and AC are specifically designed
to perform certain specific tasks.

Not
Possible
2.Reactive and Real Time: –
E.S are in constant interaction with the real world
through sensors and user-defined input devices
which are connected to the input port of the system.
Any changes in the real world are captured by the
sensors or input devices in real time and the control
algorithm running inside the unit reacts in a designed
manner to bring the controlled output variables to
the desired level.
E.S produce changes in output in response to the
changes in the input, so they are referred as reactive
systems.
 Real Time system operation means the timing behavior
of the system should be deterministic i.e the system
should respond to requests in a known amount of time.

Example – E.S which are mission critical like flight control

systems, Antilock Brake Systems (ABS) etc are Real Time
systems
The design of an embedded Real time system should take
the worst case scenario into consideration.
 3.Operates in Harsh Environment
• The design of E.S should take care of the operating conditions of the
area where the system is going to implemented.
The environment in which the embedded system deployed may be a
dusty one or a high temperature zone or an area subject to vibrations
and shock. Systems placed in such areas should be capable to withstand
all these adverse operating conditions.
For example, if the system needs to be deployed in a high temperature
zone, then all the components used in the system should be of high
temperature grade. Here we cannot go for a compromise in cost.
Also proper shock absorption techniques should be provided to systems
which are going to be commissioned in places subject to high shock.
 Power supply fluctuations, corrosion and component aging, etc. are
the other factors that need to be taken into consideration for
embedded systems to work in harsh environments.
shock absorption techniques should be provided to systems
which are going to be commissioned in places subject to high
shock.
4.Distributed:
 It means that embedded systems may
be a part of a larger system.
 Many numbers of such distributed
embedded systems form a single large
embedded control unit.
 Ex – Automatic vending machine.
 It contains a card reader, a vending unit
etc.
 Each of them are independent
embedded units but they work together
to perform the overall vending function.
vending machine(AVM). It
contains a card reader , a
vending unit etc. Each of them
are independent embedded
units but they work together
to perform the overall vending
function.
5.Small Size and Weight:
Product aesthetics (size, weight, shape, style, etc) is an
important factor in choosing a product.
It is convenient to handle a compact device than a
bulky product.
 An embedded system that is compact in size and has
light weight will be desirable or more popular than one
that is bulky and heavy.
6.Power Concerns:
Power management is another important factor that needs to
be considered in designing embedded systems.
E.S should be designed in such a way as to minimize the heat
dissipation by the system.
The production of high amount of heat demands cooling
requirements like cooling fans which in turn occupies additional
space and make the system bulky.
Nowadays ultra low power components are available in the
market.
Also power management is a critical constraint in battery
operated application. The more the power consumption the
lesser the battery life.
System
Quality attributes are the non-functional requirements that need
to be documented properly in any system design.
Quality attributes can be classified as
1. 1.Operational quality attributes
2. 2.Non-operational quality attributes.
Operational Quality Attributes
These represent the relevant quality attributes related to the
embedded system when it is in operational mode or online mode.
The way an embedded system operates affects its overall quality.

The Operational Quality Attributes are

1. Response
2. Throughput
3. Reliability
4. Maintainability
5. Security
6. Safety
1. Response
 Response is a measure of quickness of the system.
 It gives you an idea about how fast your system is tracking
the changes in input variables.
 Most of the embedded system demand fast response
which should be real-time.

Ex – Flight control application

Any delay in the response time of the system will create

potential damage to the safety of the flight as well as the
passengers.
2. Throughput:
 Throughput deals with the efficiency of system.
 It can be defined as rate of production or operation of a
defined process over a stated period of time .
 The rates can be expressed in terms of products, batches
produced , or any other meaningful requirements.
 Ex- In case of card reader throughput means how many
transactions the reader can perform in a minute or in an
hour or in a day.
3.Reliability :
 It is a measure of how much we can rely upon the proper
functioning of the system.
 Mean Time between Failure (MTBF) and Mean Time To
Repair (MTTR) are the terms used in determining system
reliability.
 MTBF gives the frequency of failures in
hours/weeks/months.
 MTTR specifies how long the system is allowed to be out of
order following a failure.
 For embedded system with critical application need, it
should be of the order of minutes.
4.Maintainability:
 It
deals with support and maintenance to the end user or client
in case of technical issues and product failure or on the basis of
a routine system checkup.
 Reliability and maintainability are complementary to each other.
 A more reliable system means a system with less corrective
maintainability requirements and vice versa.
Maintainability can be broadly classified into two categories
 Scheduled or Periodic maintenance (Preventive maintenance)
 Corrective maintenance to unexpected failures
4.Maintainability:
a)Scheduled or Periodic Maintenance: This is the maintenance
that is required regularly after a periodic time interval.
Example: Periodic Cleaning of Air Conditioners, Refilling of
printer cartridges.
b) Maintenance to unexpected failure
 This involves the maintenance due to a sudden breakdown in

the functioning of the system.

Example: Air conditioner not powering on
 Printer not taking paper in spite of a full paper stack

 Maintainability is simply an indication of the availability of the

product for use.

5.Security:
 Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability are the three corner
stone’s of information security.
 Confidentiality deals with protection of data and application

from unauthorized disclosure.

 Integrity deals with the protection of data and application from

unauthorized modification.
 Availability deals with protection of data and application from

unauthorized users.
 Certain Embedded systems have to make sure that they confirm

to the security measures.

 An example of the 'Security' aspect in an embedded product is a

Personal Digital Assistant(PDA).

5.Security:
 The PDA can be either a shared resource (e.g. PDAs used in LAB
setups) or an individual one. If it is shared one there should
become mechanism in the form of username and password to
access a particular person’s profile-This is an example of
'Availability'.
 Also all data and applications present in the PDA need not be

accessible to all the users.- Some of them are specifically

accessible to administrators only. For achieving this,
Administrator and user level of security should be implemented
-An example of Confidentiality.
 Some data present in the PDA may be visible to all users but

there may not be necessary permissions to alter the data by the

users i.e only read only access is allocated to all users-An
example of Integrity.
6.Safety :
 Safety deals with the possible damages that can happen to
the operator, public and the environment due to the
breakdown of an Embedded System or due to the emission
of radioactive or hazardous materials from embedded
products.
 The breakdown of an embedded system may occur due to

a hardware failure or a firmware failure.

 Safety analysis is a must in product engineering to evaluate

the anticipated damages and determine the best course of

action to bring down the consequences of damage to an
acceptable level.
Attributes
These are attributes not related to operation or functioning of an
embedded system.

The Non Operational Quality Attributes are

1. Testability and Debugability
2. Evolvability
3. Portability
4. Time to Prototype and Market
5. Per Unit Cost and Revenue
1. Testability and Debugability
 Testabilitydeals with how easily one can test the
design, application and by which means it can be done.
 For an E.S testability is applicable to both the

embedded hardware and firmware.

 Embedded hardware testing ensures that the

peripherals and total hardware functions in the desired

manner, whereas firmware testing ensures that the
firmware is functioning in the expected way.
1. Testability and Debugability
 Debug-ability is a means of debugging the product for
figuring out the probable sources that create unexpected
behavior in the system
 Debug-ability has two aspects in the embedded system

development process
1.Hardware level 2.software level
 1. Hardware level: It is used for finding the issues created

by hardware problems.
 2. Software level: It is employed for finding the errors

created by the flaws in the software.

2.Evolvability :

 Itis a term which is closely related to Biology.

 For an embedded system evolvability refers to the ease with

which the embedded product can be modified to take

advantage of new firmware or hardware technologies.
3.Portability:
 It is the measure of system independence.
 An embedded product is said to be portable if the product

is capable of functioning in various environments, target

processors and embedded operating systems.
 In embedded products, “Porting‟ represents the migration

of embedded firmware written for one target processor to

a different target processor.
 If the firmware is written in high level language like ‘C’ with

little target processor specific functions it is very easy to

port the software for the new processor by replacing those
target processor specific functions with the ones for the
new target processor and recompiling program for the new
target processor specific settings.
4.Time-to-Prototype and Market:
 Time to Market is the time elapsed between the
conceptualization of a product and the time at which
the product is ready for selling.
 The commercial embedded product market is highly

competitive and time to market the product is critical

factor in the success of commercial embedded
product.
 There may be multiple players in embedded industry

who develop products of the same category (like

mobile phone).
4.Time-to-Prototype and Market:
 Product prototyping helps a lot in reducing the time to
market .
 Whenever you have a product idea, you may not be

certain about the feasibility of the idea .

 Prototyping is an informal kind of rapid product

development in which the important features of the

product under consideration are developed .
 Time to prototype is also another critical factor.

 If the prototype is developed faster the actual

estimated development time can be brought down

significantly.
5.Per Unit Cost and Revenue:
 Cost is a factor which is closely monitored by both end user
and product manufacturer.
 Cost is highly sensitive factor for commercial products.

 Any failure to position the cost of a commercial product at

a nominal rate may lead to the failure of the product in the

market.
 Proper market study and cost benefit analysis should be

carried out before taking a decision on the per-unit cost of

the embedded product.
 The ultimate aim of the product is to generate marginal

profit so that the budget and total cost should be properly

balanced to provide a marginal profit.