UNIT I - SMART GRID

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGNS

1
 SYLLABUS

UNIT I - SMART GRID ARCHITECTURAL DESIGNS (9 hours)

Introduction – Comparison of Power grid with Smart grid – power system enhancement –
communication and standards - General View of the Smart Grid Market Drivers - Stakeholder Roles
and Function - Measures - Representative Architecture - Functions of Smart Grid Components-
Wholesale energy market in smart grid-smart vehicles in smart grid.
UNITII - SMART GRID COMMUNICATIONS AND EASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY (8
hours)
Communication and Measurement - Monitoring, Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU), Smart Meters,
Wide area monitoring systems (WAMS)- Advanced metering infrastructure- GIS and Google Mapping
Tools.

UNIT III - PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS TOOLS FOR SMART GRID DESIGN (9 hours)
Introduction to Load Flow Studies - Challenges to Load Flow in Smart Grid and Weaknesses of the Present
Load Flow Methods - Load Flow State of the Art: Classical, Extended Formulations, and Algorithms –
Load flow for smart grid design-Contingencies studies for smart grid.
UNIT IV - STABILITY ANALYSIS TOOLS FOR SMART GRID (10 hours)
Voltage Stability Analysis Tools-Voltage Stability Assessment Techniques-Voltage Stability Indexing-
Application and Implementation Plan of Voltage Stability in smart grid-Angle stability assessment in smart
grid-Approach of smart grid to State Estimation-Energy management in smart grid

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UNIT V - RENEWABLE ENERGY AND STORAGE (9 hours)
Renewable Energy Resources-Sustainable Energy Options for the Smart Grid-Penetration and Variability
Issues Associated with Sustainable Energy Technology-Demand Response Issues-Electric Vehicles and Plug-
in Hybrids-PHEV Technology-Environmental Implications-Storage Technologies-Grid integration issues of
renewable energy sources.
REFERENCES
1. James Momoh, “Smart Grid: Fundamentals of design and analysis”, John Wiley & sons Inc, IEEE press
2012.
2. Janaka Ekanayake, Nick Jenkins, Kithsiri Liyanage, Jianzhong Wu, Akihiko Yokoyama, “Smart Grid:
Technology and Applications”, John Wiley & sons inc, 2012.
3. Fereidoon P. Sioshansi, “Smart Grid: Integrating Renewable, Distributed & Efficient Energy”, Academic
Press, 2012.
4. Clark W.Gellings, “The smart grid: Enabling energy efficiency and demand response”, Fairmont Press
Inc, 2009.

3
Traditional power system problems:

Centralized
No local supervisory control unit
No fault isolation
Relied entirely on electricity from the grid
SMART GRID
• A modernization grid that enables bidirectional flows of energy and
uses two way communication and control capabilities that will lead to
an array of new functionalities and applications.

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SMART GRID VS CONVENTIONAL
GRID

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6
 INTRODUCTION
• Smart Grid is a system that uses sensors and computational ability and
control to intelligently integrate the actions of all users connected to it.
• It provide consumers with greater choice of supply and information and
reduce the impact of the present system on environment by introducing
renewable sources and more importantly ensure continuous and dependable
sources of power supply which are reliable.
• Key feature of the smart grid is automation technology that lets the utility
adjust and control each individual device or millions of devices from a
central location.
• The new grid will be capable of
• Handling uncertainties in schedules and power transfer across regions
• Accommodating renewables
• Optimizing the transfer capability of the transmission and distribution
networks
• Managing and resolving unpredictable events and uncertainties in
operations

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Characteristics of smart grid

• Intelligent – capable of sensing system overloads and rerouting power

to prevent or minimize a potential outage; of working autonomously
when conditions require resolution faster than humans can respond and
cooperatively in aligning the goals of utilities, consumers and regulators.
• Efficient – capable of meeting increased consumer demand without
adding infrastructure
• Accommodating – accepting energy from virtually any fuel source
including solar and wind as easily and transparently as coal and natural
gas; capable of integrating any and all better ideas and technologies –
energy storage technologies, for example – as they are market-proven
and ready to come online
• Motivating – enabling real-time communication between the consumer
and utility so consumers can tailor their energy consumption based on
individual preferences, like price and/or environmental concerns

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Characteristics of smart grid

• Opportunistic – creating new opportunities and markets by means of

its ability to capitalize on plug-and-play innovation wherever and
whenever appropriate
• Quality-focused – capable of delivering the power quality necessary –
free of sags, spikes, disturbances and interruptions – to power our
increasingly digital economy and the data centers, computers and
electronics necessary to make it run
• Resilient – increasingly resistant to attack and natural disasters as it
becomes more decentralized and reinforced with Smart Grid security
protocols
• “Green” – slowing the advance of global climate change and offering
a genuine path toward significant environmental improvement

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Comparison of Power Grid with Smart Grid

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KEY ASPECTS OF SMART GRID

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 SMART GRID DRIVERS
A number of converging factors will drive the energy industry to modernize the
electric grid. These factors can be combined in five major groups as follows:
• Policy and Legislative Drivers
• Electric market rules that create comparability and monetize benefits
• Electricity pricing and access to enable smart grid options
• State regulations to allow smart grid deferral of capital and operating costs
• Compatible Federal and state policies to enable full integration of smart
grid benefits
• Economic Competitiveness
• Creating new businesses and new business models and adding “green” jobs
• Technology regionalization
• Alleviate the challenge of a drain of technical resources in an aging
workforce
• Energy Reliability and Security
• Customer Empowerment
• Environmental Sustainability

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 Power System Enhancement
• Policy - makers assume that greatly expanded use of
renewable energy resources will help to offset the impacts of
carbon emissions from thermal and fossil energy, meet
demand uncertainty, and to some extent, increase reliability of
delivery.
• Monitor and control the energy grid in near real time helps to
improve reliability and utilization, reduce blackouts, and
postpone costly new upgrades.

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 Communication and Standards
• The smart grid ’ s advanced automations will generate vast amounts
of operational data in a rapid decision – making environment.
• New algorithms will help it become adaptive and capable of
predicting with foresight. In turn, new rules will be needed for
managing, operating, and marketing networks.

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 Smart grids Market Viewers
• To improve efficiency and reliability, several market drivers and new
opportunities suggest that the smart grid must:
– Satisfy the need for increased integration of digital systems for
increased efficiency of the power system.
– Handle grid congestion, increase customer participation, and reduce
uncertainty for investment.
– Seamlessly integrate renewable energy systems (RES) and distributed
generation

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 Stakeholder Roles and Functions
• Critical attention must be paid to the identification of the stakeholders and
how they function in the grid ’ s development
• Stakeholders range from utility and energy producers to consumers, policy -
makers, technology providers, and researchers
• Policy - makers are the federal and state regulators responsible for ensuring
the cohesiveness of policies for modernization efforts and mediating the
needs of all parties.
• The primary benefit of smart grid development to these stakeholders
concerns the mitigation of energy prices, reduced dependence on foreign oil,
increased efficiency, and reliability of power supply
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Contd…

Stakeholders and their functions 17

 REPRESENTATIVE ARCHITECTURE
• Two main types of architectures are there

• One from the Federal Department of Energy (DOE) which divides the proposed

smart grid into nine areas: transmission automation, system coordination

situation assessment, system operations, distribution automation, renewable

integration, energy efficiency, distributed generation and storage, demand

participation signals and options, and smart appliances, PHEVs, and storage.

• The second architectural framework is partitioned into subsystems with layers

of intelligence and technology and new tools and innovations. It involves bulk

power generation, transmission, distribution, and end user level of the electric

power system.

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DOE representative architecture of the smart grid design (architecture 1)

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The intelligent grid (architecture 2)

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FUNCTIONS OF SMART GRID COMPONENTS

• Smart Devices Interface Component

Smart devices for monitoring and control form part of the
generation components ’ real time information processes.
• Storage Component
Due to the variability of renewable energy and the disjoint
between peak availability and peak consumption, it is important to find
ways to store the generated energy for later use. Options for energy
storage technologies include pumped hydro, advance batteries, flow
batteries, compressed air, super - conducting magnetic energy storage,
super capacitors, and flywheels. Associated market mechanisms for
handling renewable energy resources, distributed generation,
environmental impact and pollution are other components necessary at
the generation level.

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Contd…
• Transmission Subsystem Component
The transmission system that interconnects all major substation and load
centers is the backbone of an integrated power system. Efficiency and
reliability at an affordable cost continue to be the ultimate aims of transmission
planners and operators.
• Monitoring and Control Technology Component
Intelligent transmission systems/assets include a smart intelligent network, self
- monitoring and self - healing, and the adaptability and predictability of
generation and demand robust enough to handle congestion, instability, and
reliability issues.
• Intelligent Grid Distribution Subsystem Component
The distribution system is the final stage in the transmission of power to end
users. Primary feeders at this voltage level supply small industrial customers
and secondary distribution feeders supply residential and commercial
customers.
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Contd…
• Demand Side Management Component
DSM options provide reduced emissions in fuel production, lower costs, and
contribute to reliability of generation. These options have an overall impact on
the utility load curve.

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 Smart Vehicles in Smart Grid

• HEV’s batteries can be used to store energy when it is

inexpensive and sell it back to the grid when prices
are higher.
• For drivers there vehicle becomes a viable means to
arbitrage the cost of power while utility companies
uses fleets of HEV’s to supply power to the grid to
respond to peaks in electricity demand.

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 Refences
• James Momoh, “Smart Grid: Fundamentals of design
and analysis”, John Wiley & sons Inc, IEEE press
2012
• Computational Intelligence in Smart Electric Power
Grid

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 UNIT II - SMART GRID
COMMUNICATION AND
MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY

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 Introduction
• High - speed, fully integrated, two - way communication technologies will
allow the smart grid to be a dynamic, interactive mega - infrastructure for
real - time information and power exchange.
• The technology exists for the measure, monitor, and control in real time in
the Smart Grid.
• The communication technologies include :-
1. Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS): high – performance
telecommunications networks for data transmission between network
nodes
2. Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax): wireless
telecommunication technology for point to multipoint data transmission
utilizing Internet technology
3. Broadband over Power Lines (BPL): power line communication with
Internet access
4. Wi - Fi: commonly used wireless local area network

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Contd…
• The five characteristics of smart grid
communication technology are
– High Bandwidth
– IP enabled digital communication
– Encryption
– Cyber Security
– Support and quality of service and voice over
internet protocol

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• Reliable intercommunication of hardware and software will require configuring
several types of network topologies.
– LAN
– NAN
• Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is a shared access technology, meaning that all of the attached devices share a
common medium of communication such as coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber optics
cable.
Advantages and Features of LAN
• Resource sharing: allows intelligent devices such as storage devices, programs, and
data files to share resources, that is, LAN users can use the same printer on the
network; the installed database and the software can be shared by multiple users
• Area covered: LAN is normally restricted to a small geographical area, for
example, office building, utility, campus
• Cost and availability: application software and interface devices are affordable and
off - the - shelf
• High channel speed: ability to transfer data at rates between 1 and 10 million bits
per second
• Flexibility: grow/expand with low probability of error; easy to maintain and
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operate
 LAN has three categories of data transmission:
1. Unicast transmission: a single data packet is sent from a source
node to a destination (address) on the network
2. Multicast transmission: a single data packet is copied and sent
to a specific subset of nodes on the network; the source node
addresses the packet by using the multicast addresses
3. Broadcast transmission: a single data packet is copied and sent
to all nodes on the network; the source node addresses the
packet by using the broadcast address
Neighborhood Area Network (NAN)
It is a wireless community currently used for wireless
local distribution applications. Ideally, it will cover an area
larger than a LAN.

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 MONITORING, PMU, SMART METERS, AND
MEASUREMENTS TECHNOLOGIES
• The smart grid environment requires the upgrade of tools for sensing,
metering, and measurements at all levels of the grid. These components
will provide the data necessary for monitoring the grid and the power
market.
• Sensing provides outage detection and response, evaluates the health of
equipment and the integrity of the grid, eliminates meter estimations,
provides energy theft protection, enables consumer choice, DSM, and
various grid monitoring functions.
• For increased utilization of digital electronics for metering and
measurements, advancement of the electric meter at the customer level,
and installation of wide area monitoring systems (WAMs) for advanced
utility monitoring and protection the following methods are used.
- Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)
- Phasor Measurement Units (PMU)
- Smart Meters
- Smart Appliances
- Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) 31
Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)
– WAMS are designed by the utilities for optimal capacity of the transmission
grid and to prevent the spread of disturbances.
– WAMS give early warnings of system disturbances for the prevention and
mitigation of system - wide blackouts.
– WAMS utilize sensors distributed throughout the network in conjunction
with GPS satellites for precise time stamping of measurements in the
transmission system.
Phasor Measurement Units (PMU)
– Phasor Measurement Units or Synchrophasors give operators a time -
stamped snapshot of the power system.
– The PMUs consist of bus voltage phasors and branch current phasors,
in addition to information such as locations and other network
parameters
– Phasor measurements are taken with high precision from different
points of the power system at the same instant, allowing an operator
to visualize the exact angular difference between different locations.
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Conceptual diagram of a synchronized phasor measuring system 33
• Smart Meters
– Smart meters have two functions
• providing data on energy usage to customers to help control cost
and consumption; sending data to the utility for load factor control,
peak load requirements
• the development of pricing strategies based on consumption
information
– Smart meters equip utility customers with knowledge about how much
they pay per kilowatt hour and how and when they use energy.
• Smart Appliances
– Smart appliances cycle up and down in response to signals sent by the
utility. The appliances enable customers to participate in voluntary
demand response programs which award credits for limiting power use
in peak demand periods or when the grid is under stress.
– Grid - friendly appliances use a simple computer chip that can sense
disturbances in the grid ’ s power frequency and can turn an appliance
off for a few minutes to allow the grid to stabilize during a crisis. 34
 Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)
– AMI is the convergence of the grid, the communication infrastructure,
and the supporting information infrastructure.
• The functions of AMI can be subdivided into three major categories:
– Market applications: Serve to reduce/eliminate labor, transportation,
and infrastructure costs associated with meter reading and
maintenance, increase accuracy of billing, and allow for time - based
rates while reducing bad debts; facilitates informed customer
participation for energy management.
– Customer applications: Serves to increase customer awareness about
load reduction, reduces bad debt, and improves cash flow, and
enhances customer convenience and satisfaction
– Distribution operations: Curtails customer load for grid management,
optimizes network based on data collected, allows for the location of
outages and restoration of service, improves customer satisfaction,
reduces energy losses
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 GIS AND GOOGLE MAPPING TOOLS
• GIS is useful for managing traditional electric transmission and
distribution and telecom networks. It can also help to manage information
about utility assets for data collection and maintenance.
• Google ’ s free downloadable Google Earth software offers geographical
contextual information in an updated user - friendly platform that
facilitates inquiry - based study and analysis.
• The integration of GIS with Google Earth or other mapping tools will aid
in understanding the relationship of the grid network to its surroundings.

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 1. Smart Metering
• A very broad concept • What are complex rates?
– Combo of metering- – Any rate that goes beyond
related technologies a simple total monthly
systematically configured billing for total electricity
to support complex rates consumption

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 More on Smart Metering
• Traditional meters are manually read on a
monthly basis; smart meters are interval
meters
– Allow measurement of usage over much shorter
intervals
– More precise measurement provides greater
flexibility and efficiency

• Proliferation almost tripled from 2006 to 2008,

to 19M smart meters
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 2. Advanced Metering Infrastructure
(“AMI”)
• What is it?
– Smart meters at the consumer’s location
– Fixed communication networks between consumers and
service providers
– Data reception and management systems that make the
info available to the service provider (meter data
management system or “MDMS”)
• MDMS: software applications that receive and store
meter data and perform other functions

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 AMI Definition
• Two characteristics
– Fixed network systems
– Capable of supporting complex rates

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 What does AMI do?
• Enables a two-way flow of information between
consumers and utilities

• Enables proliferation of demand response

• Allows service provider to control consumers’

electricity usage (load control)

• Facilitates Smart Grid deployment and distributed

generation

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42
 Gathering Meter Data for Complex Rates

• There are several types of advanced metering,

but not all qualify as AMI
– Standalone meter read locally
– Standalone meter read remotely over public
infrastructure
– Meter with short-distance communication
upgraded to fixed network
– Private fixed network AMI system

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Implementing AMI Fixed Networks
• Options • Choice dictated by
– Fixed Radio Frequency – Benefit to utility
(RF) – Number of customers
– Power Line that will take advantage
Communication (PLC) of dynamic pricing
– Broadband Over Power • First three are the most
Line (BPL) popular
– Public Networks
• E.g., landline, cellular,
paging, etc.

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 Data Rate Classes
• Low bandwidth • More bandwidth equals
• Mesh networks higher cost
– Communications from • But also more capability
each meter flow through • Allows for unforeseen
several others on the
value sources
way to the MDMS
• Full broadband network
connections

45
 Why implement AMI?
• Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act section
111(d) mandate
– As amended by § 1252 of the Energy Policy Act of
2005
• Each utility must offer each class of customers
a time-based rate schedule
• And must provide these rates and meter them
for those who request

46
 Why implement AMI?
• Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act section
111(d) mandate
– Regulators of regulated utilities and unregulated
utilities required to “consider and determine”
whether smart metering is appropriate
– If so, these entities must set smart metering
standards for the utilities

47
 Determining If Smart Metering Is
Appropriate
• Cost-benefit analysis • Two considerations
• Must consider – Metering
benefits for – Programs that allow
– Customers customers to lessen
electricity use
– AND utilities

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 Benefit: Demand Response
• EPAct of 2005: US’s policy is • Allows for peak shaving:
to encourage demand reducing electrical demand
response at times when electricity is
most costly to produce
• AMI allows consumers to
easily take advantage of • AMI provides info that
dynamic pricing programs incentivizes customers to
reduce usage and
• Utility provides info on automates that process,
electricity price changes to requiring minimal consumer
consumers so they may effort
modify their usage
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 Conventional Methods of Providing Price
Info
• Examples
– Newspaper
– Audio broadcast radio
– TV
– Fax
– Telephone
– Email
• A fixed network AMI solution would provide
this info to many consumers with
comparatively less difficulty 50
 Another Benefit: Load Control
• Home Area Networks
• Homes can respond to
electricity supply in
order to maximize
efficiency through user-
set profiles
• Utilities can alter supply
of electricity to homes
when demand is
expected to spike
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 Cost
• Itemization
– Hardware and
software
– Installation costs
– Meter data
management
– Project management
– IT integration

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 Security Issues
• Privacy
– Can determine if
someone is home
– Can determine usage
patterns
• Exposure to cyber
terrorism

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 Standardization
• How do you ensure
that everything can
communicate in an
AMI system?

• Communication
protocols amongst
– Load control devices
in HANs
– Fixed networks
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55
 Conclusion
• AMI faces many
challenges but has
the potential to
greatly increase
energy efficiency

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 Introduction to Phasor
Measurements Units (PMUs)

57
 Introduction
• Classical Definition of a Phasor
– A pure sinusoidal waveform can be represented by
a unique complex number known as a ‘phasor’.
• A sinusoidal signal

• The phasor representation of this sinusoid is given by

58
 Introduction
• Classical Definition of a Phasor
– The RMS cosine-reference voltage and current
phasors are.
j v
V | V | e | V |  v
j i
I | I | e | I |  i

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 Introduction
• Classical Definition of a Phasor

(a) Sinusoidal signal (b) Phasor representation

60
 Introduction
• Classical Definition of a Phasor
– If the sinusoid is not a pure sine wave, the phasor
is assumed to represent its fundamental
frequency component.
– The most commonly used method of calculating
phasors from sampled data is that of Discrete
Fourier Transform (DFT).

61
 Introduction
• Important of the Phasor Measurement
ET 1 * ET 2
P sin 
XL

62
 Introduction
• Important of the Phasor Measurement

63
 Introduction
• Functional block diagram of the elements in a
PMU.

64
PMU and Smart Grid Development
• The electrical power system is one of the most
sophisticated man-made infrastructures.
• While the power system is a technological marvel,
it is also reaching the limit of its ability to meet
the nation's electricity needs.
• The modernization of the electricity infrastructure
leads to the concept of smart grid.
• The smart grid as defined here is based upon the
description found in the Energy Independence and
Security Act 2007. 65
PMU and Smart Grid Development
• The term “Smart Grid” refers to a modernization
of the electricity delivery system so that it
monitors, protect, and automatically optimizes
the operation of its interconnected elements.
• In general, a comprehensive smart grid design
should take holistic approaches and cover both
top-down and bottom-up approaches.
• Many smart grid related activities have been
carried out all over the world.
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 Desired Features of Smart Grid
• Advanced monitoring, control, and demand
management.
• Advanced components & operating concepts.
• Robust modeling & simulation tools.
• Seamless interconnection of low environmental
impact new generation technologies.
• Standardized architecture & secure
communication standards.

67
Potential Areas of Smart Grid Development
and Applications

68
PMU for Wide Area Monitoring and Control

• Deployment of Phasor Measurement Unit

(PMU)

69
PMU for Wide Area Monitoring and Control

• Potential PMU Applications

• Wide-Area Visualization and Monitoring;
• Angle and Frequency Monitoring;
• Interarea Oscillation Detection & Analysis;
• Proximity to Voltage Collapse;
• State Estimation;
• Fast Frequency Regulation;
• Transmission Fault Location Estimation;
• Dynamic Model Validation.

70
 PMU for Wide Area Monitoring and Control

• Though the above applications are from the view of

ISO, the PMUs-based applications also benefit
generator owners and other market participants.
• PMUs are able to continuously record several
different signals which are the requirements of
ancillary services like spinning reserve, frequency
control and voltage control.
• Once the infrastructure is permanently installed at
the power plant, the online tests such as voltage
step-change can be easily applied and recorded. 71
 Sample PMU Applications
• PMU applications in CAISO: Wide area
visualization and monitoring

Source: EPG
72
 Sample PMU Applications
• Recording of Actual Event

73
 Sample PMU Applications
• Comparison between Actual response and
Simulation Results

WSCC (WECC) System Blackout on August 10, 1996

74
 Sample PMU Applications
• PMU Based On-Line generator parameter
identification system.
PMU Phasor Data
Concentrator

PMU Ethernet
hp Workstation i2000
.....

GPS
Communication Standards
PMU Applications IEEE C37.118.2
IEC 61850-90-5
ICCP
hp Workstation i2000

EMS 75
Database
 Sample PMU Applications
• PMU Based On-Line generator response and
parameter identification system.

Original System Reduced System 76

 Sample PMU Applications
• Fault Location in the Transmission Network.

77
 Conclusion and Discussion
• PMU is a matured technology.
• In addition to the original intended applications
on “Phasor Measurement”, PMUs offer
attractive options for improving protection and
control actions on modern power systems.
• Future power systems will have to face more
stressful regimes; improved protection and
control offered by the wide area measurement
systems based on PMUs will become even
more important. 78
 Standards
• The original standard for PMUs, C37.1344, was
released in 1995 and was reaffirmed in 2001.

• The new standard IEEE PC37.118 “Standard for

Synchrophasors for Power Systems” has now
replaced the earlier one.

• There are no IEC standards at the moment and it is

most likely that the IEEE will become IEC standard as
was in the case of the COMTRADE standard.
Synchronized Measurements

Location 2

Location 1

Phase angular difference between the two

can be determined if the two local clocks
are synchronized.
Synchronizing pulses obtained from GPS
satellites.
 Role of GPS

• Constellation of 24 satellites orbiting at 20,200 km

• Developed by US dept of defense
• Available for free for civilian use
• Beyond navigation use, it provides time reference:
– Protection systems derive usage of GPS from the timing signal
• 4 satellites are needed for knowing timing and location position
• Satellites have atomic clocks
• Provides coordinated universal time (UTC) which is international atomic time
compensated for leap seconds for slowing of earths rotations
• can obtain accurate timing pulse every second with an accuracy of 1 microsecond
 Communication Options
• Telephone lines

• Fiber-optic cables

• Satellites

• Power lines

• Microwave links
 Delay Calculations……
• Fixed delay
– Delay due to processing, DFT, multiplexing and data
concentration
– Independent of communication medium used
– Estimated to be around 75 ms
• Propagation delay
– Function of the communication link and physical
separation
– Ranges from 25 ms in case of fiber-optic cables to
200 ms in case of low earth orbiting (LEO) satellites
 Delay Calculation Table

Communication Associated delay – one

link way (milliseconds)
Fiber-optic cables ~ 100-150

Microwave links ~ 100-150

Power line (PLC) ~ 150-350

Telephone lines ~ 200-300

Satellite link ~ 500-700

 Communications
• Though many communication media is
possible, fiber optic provides, by and large,
the most secure and fast communication
medium.
 PMU placement
It is not at all necessary to place PMUs at all
busses in the power system to make it
observable.

When a PMU is placed at a bus, then it's

neighbouring busses also become observable.

In general, a system can be made observable

by placement of PMUs on approximately 25%
to 33% of the busses in the system

Optimal PMU placement problem i.e.,

minimum PMU placement problem for system
observability, can be formulated as an Integer
Linear Programming (ILP) problem.
57 bus system
PMU placement
 PMU Applications
• SCADA Displays
• State estimation
• Control (WAMS)/SPS
Measurement based controls for:
Voltage Stability
Angle Stability
Frequency Stability
• Event and system analysis
• Improved operational observability
• Dynamic System Stability Probe & Control
- Power system damping-PSS
• PMU data trends can detect CB/switch status changes in the
network, which will improve the topology estimation
Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)
 WAM Design Constraint

Computation time
+
Communication
time
< Response time of the
system dynamics
 Opportunities Provided by WAMS
• On-line or real time monitoring and state estimation
– We can realize 1 state estimator run per cycle
– provides us an opportunity to peep into electromechanical system
dynamics in real time
» upgrade from local control to wide area controller e.g., for PSS
& damping controllers etc
» improve performance of the apparatus protection schemes
» improve performance of the system protection schemes
• Accurate measurement of transmission system data
in real time
 WAM applications
• Protection
Power Swing blocking
Improved back up protection
Current Differential protection

• Continuous Closed Loop Control ???

e.g., PSS using global signals
Unfortunately: Require to accurately determine the
communication latencies for continuous control
 WAM applications
Emergency Control (System Protection Schemes)

• Controlled System Separation

• Triggering of load shedding based on

NON-LOCAL signals. Better df/dt relaying.

• Triggering other schemes (generator shedding, dynamic brake,

governor) etc.

Some may require accurate loss of synchronism prediction

 References
• James Momoh, “Smart Grid: Fundamentals of design
and analysis”, John Wiley & sons Inc, IEEE press
2012
 References
• James Momoh, “Smart Grid: Fundamentals of design
and analysis”, John Wiley & sons Inc, IEEE press
2012

95
UNIT III– PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
TOOLS FOR SMART GRID DESIGN

96
 Introduction
• Load flow studies are critical to system
planning and system operation.
• Load flow studies identify line loads and bus
voltages out of range, inappropriately large
bus phase angles
• It assist system operators in calculating power
levels at each generating unit for economic
dispatch, analyzing outages and other forced
operating conditions
97
Comparison of Load Flow Techniques

98
Load Flow State Of The Art: Classical, extended
Formulations And Algorithms
• The traditional load flow techniques used for distribution load
flow are characterized by:
1. Distribution systems are radial or weakly meshed network
structures
2. High X/R ratios in the line impedances
3. Single phase loads handled by the distribution load flow
program
4. Distributed Generation (DG), other renewable generation,
and/or cogeneration power supplies installed in relative
proximity to some load centers
5. Distribution systems with many short line segments, most
of which have low impedance values
99
The classical methods of studying load flow
include:
1. Gauss – Seidal
2. Newton – Raphson
3. Fast Decouple

100
• Gauss–Seidal Method
– This method uses Kirchhoff ’ s current law nodal
equations given as I injection current at the node.
Suppose I injection = current at the node of a
given connected load, then

where Iinj ( j ) is the injection current at bus j and Iji = current

flow from j th bus to I th bus. Rewriting, we obtain I inj ( j ) =
Y bus V bus where Y bus admittance matrix is given as V bus
vector of bus voltages.
101
This equation is solved by an iterative method for Vj if P and Q
are specified.

where Yij are the elements of bus admittance matrix, and Pi

sch and Qi sch are scheduled P and Q at each bus.

102
• Newton–Raphson Method
– The Newton – Raphson Method assumes an initial
starting voltage use in computing mismatch power Δ
S
where the expression Δ S is called the mismatch
power. In order to determine convergence
criteria given by ΔS ≤ ε , where ε is a specific
tolerance, accuracy index, and a sensitivity matrix
is derived from the inverse Jacobian matrix of the
injected power equations:
103
where θi is the angle between Vi and Vj , and ψij is admittance
angle.

104
• Fast Decouple Method
The fast decouple method simplifies the
Jacobian matrix by using small angle
approximations to eliminate relatively small
elements of the Jacobian. The method is one
of the effective techniques used in power
system analysis.

105
• Distribution Load Flow Methods
Due to the limitation of the fast decouple method in solving
an ill - conditioned system with a high X/R ratio, the
distribution load flow techniques require alternative
methods.
1. Forward/backward sweep methods solves branch current or
load flow by using the forward sweeping method
2. Compute the nodal voltages using backward sweep approach
3. Newton method uses power mismatches at the end of
feeders and laterals to iteratively solve the nodal voltage
4. Gauss method on the bus impedance matrix equation solves
iteratively for the branch currents.
106
• Method 1: Forward/Backward Sweep
The backward sweep primarily sums either
the line currents or load flows from the
extreme feeder (leaf) to the root.
Steps
– Select the slack bus and assume initial voltage and
angle at the root, node, and other buses
– Compute nodal current injection at the K th
iteration
107
– Start from the root with known slack bus voltages
and move toward the feeder and lateral ends
– Compute the voltage at node j

where Zij is the branch impedance between bus i and j and

Vj is the latest voltage value of bus j

108
– Compute the power mismatch from and check the
termination criteria using

-If step above is not reached repeat the previous

steps until convergence is achieved.

109
– If step above is not reached repeat the previous
steps until convergence is achieved.

110
• Method 2: Load Flow Based on Sensitivity
Matrix for Mismatch Calculation
The distribution load flow is an improved forward/backward
method utilizing a sensitivity matrix scheme to compensate
the mismatch between slack bus power injection and the load
flow at the feeder and lateral ends. This results in the Newton
– Raphson method for distribution load flow.

111
• Steps
– Assume the slack bus as the root node
– Assume P , Q power injection at the slack bus node equal to the sum of all of
0 0

the loads in the system

– Load flows in each branch are equal to the sum of downstream connected
loads. At k th iteration, start from root node with known voltage at slack bus
– Obtain the latest V , Pij, Q (voltage and flows)
k ij

– Compute power loss

– From the loss compute receiving end power
– The loads and shunt power are taken from the received power and the
remaining power is sent to the next feeder at lateral branches
– If load flow mismatch is less than the tolerance, ε , then load flow has
converged
– Update the slack bus power from the sensitivity matrix

112
• Method 3: Bus Impedance Network
This method uses the bus impedance matrix and equivalent current
injection to solve the network equation in a distribution system
Steps
– Assume no load system
– Initialize the load bus voltage throughout the system using the value of
the slack bus voltage
– Modify nodal voltages due to current flow which are function of
loads connected
– The injection current is modified in K th iteration as level changes
– Use for the first equivalent current injection until
getting I at the last iteration I
jk 0

113
– Compute the vector of voltage denoted as ΔV
using ΔV using

- Determine the bus voltage updates throughout the

network

- Check mismatch power at each load bus

- Otherwise, go to step 3.

114
 References
• James Momoh, “Smart Grid: Fundamentals of design
and analysis”, John Wiley & sons Inc, IEEE press
2012

115
UNIT IV – STABILITY ANALYSIS
TOOLS FOR SMART GRID

116
 INTRODUCTION
• As electric power networks worldwide expand to
accommodate more generation, RER, and control
devices, the physical and technical consequences
resulting from weaknesses in generation,
transmission, and distribution will become more
costly to society and the environment.
• This chapter first reviews the extant research in
stability assessment, and follows with a proposed
framework for the design of the new tools needed
for smart grid analysis and design.
117
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF EXISTING VOLTAGE
STABILITY ANALYSIS TOOLS
• Robustness: Persistence of a system ’ s characteristic behavior under
perturbations or conditions of uncertainty.
• Scalability: Ability of a system, network, or process to accommodate
growing amounts of work; ability to be enlarged to accommodate
growth.
• Stochasticity: Time development (be it deterministic or essentially
probabilistic) that is analyzable in terms of probability.
• Predictivity: Rigorous, often quantitative, forecast of what will occur
under specific conditions.
• Adaptability: System can adapt its behavior according to changes in
its environment or in parts of the system itself.
• Online real - time data acquisition: Instantaneous acquisition of data

118
• Other suitable tools and techniques include:
– WAM techniques: measurements of voltage, angle,
frequency, control series, and available resources for load
state conditions
– Phasor Measurement Unit: PMUs are high - speed, time -
synchronized digital recorders that measure voltage,
current, and frequency on the transmission system, and
calculate voltage and current magnitudes, phase angles, and
real and reactive power flows
– Smart Meters: Two - way electronic communication meter or
other device measuring electricity, natural gas, or water
consumption.
119
 Voltage Stability Assessment Techniques

• VIPI Method
• VIPI was based on the concept of multiple load flow solutions.
A pair of load flow solutions x1 and x2 are represented by two
vectors a and b as follows:

120
where vector Ys consists of bus injections computed with
respect to x1 , but the injection values corresponding to the
reactive powers of PV busses are replaced by the squared
values of voltage magnitudes. Y ( a ) consists of bus injections
with respect to vector a: ||χ || is the l 2 norm of vector x .

121
• where vector Ys consists of bus injections
computed with respect to x1 , but the injection
values corresponding to the reactive powers
of PV busses are replaced by the squared
values of voltage magnitudes. Y ( a ) consists
of bus injections with respect to vector a: ||
χ || is the l 2 norm of vector x .

122
• Minimum Singular Value.
When an operating state approaches the collapse point, the Jacobian matrix
of the power flow equations (J) approaches singularity. The minimum
singular value of the Jacobian matrix expresses the closeness of Jacobian
singularity. Singular value decomposition method is used to solve the
minimum singular value for static voltage stability analysis.
• According to the theory of singular value decomposition, the Jacobian
matrix of the power flow can be decomposed as:

123
If matrix J has rank r ( r ≤ 2 n ), its singular values are the square roots of the r
positive eigenvalues of AT A (or AA T ), U and V are orthonormal matrices of order
2 n , and their columns contain the eigenvectors of AA T and AT A respectively.
Thus:

124
• Condition Number of the Jacobian Matrix
The condition number is used in numerical analysis to analyze
the propagation of errors in matrix A or vector b in solving
variable vector x for the linear equation Ax = b . If matrix A is
ill - conditioned, even very small variations in vector b (or A )
may result in significant changes in solution vector x .

If matrix A is symmetric with eigenvalues σ1 , σ2 , . . . , σn ,

then Cond 2 (A) is expressed as:

125
• VOLTAGE STABILITY INDEXING
• The degeneracy of the load flow Jacobian matrix is used as an index
of power system steady - state stability.
• Under certain conditions, a change in the sign of the determinant of
the Jacobian matrix during continuous variations of parameters
means that a real Eigen value of the linearized swing equations
crosses the imaginary axis into the right half of the complex plane
and stability is lost.
• Bifurcation theory was used to analyze static stability and voltage
collapse.
• The differential change in voltage at each bus for a given differential
change in system load is available from the tangent vector.
Therefore, one way to identify the weakest bus with respect to
voltage stability limits is to find the bus with the largest dV i/dPtotal ,
where dPtotal is the differential change in active load for the entire
system and is given by 126
The weakest bus j is therefore given by

When the weakest bus j reaches its steady - state, the voltage stability limit dλ
approaches zero and the ratio | dVj / Cdλ | will become infinite or,
equivalently, the ratio | Cdλ / dVj | tends to zero. The latter ratio which is
easier to handle numerically and makes a good voltage stability index for the
entire system. Instead of dPtotal , dQtotal can also be used.

127
• APPLICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION PLAN OF
VOLTAGE STABILITY
• The vector function F consists of n scalar equations defi ning a
curve in the n + 1 dimensional ( x , λ ) space.
• The frequently used measures are:

When λ approaches λ * ( λ < λ * ), both solutions merge. At this point, the

Jacobian of the power flow solution is singular. In the mathematical
literature these points are called turning points, or fold points. An algebraic
feature of the turning point given by Fx is

128
• ANGLE STABILITY ASSESSMENT
Numerical method: RK4, Trapezoidal method,
modifi ed Euler method
– The Euler approach converts differential equations
from digital to analogue; numerical methods solve
numerical method technique by analyzing
decoupled first – and second - order state
differential equation with the predictor corrector
technique
– The trapezoidal method is faster for still networks
than other methods
129
Artificial Intelligence Method
– This technique uses heuristic and computational
intelligence to estimate the stability margin and
computational indices. The method includes the
expert system for classifying contingencies,
identifying and estimating the instability margin,
and so on

130
 • Algorithm to Find the Controlling UEP
The reduced system is

Step 1: From the fault - on trajectory ( δ ( t ), ω ( t )), detect the point δ * at

which the projected trajectory δ ( t ) reaches the first local maximum of Vp ( . ),
and then compute the point δ ¯ that is one step ahead of δ * along δ ( t) , and
the point δ + that is one step after δ *
Step 2: Use the point δ * as initial condition and integrate the post - fault
reduced system Equation (5 – 31) to find the first local minimum of Σi= n1 fi(δ),
say at δ0 *
Step 3: Use δ ¯ and δ + as initial conditions and repeat Step 2 to fi nd the
corresponding points, say δo¯ and δo + , respectively
Step 4: Compare the values of | f ( δ )| at δ o −, δ o*, and δ o +; use the one with
the smallest value as the initial guess to solve (5 – 31), fi ( δ ) = 0, say the
solution is δco
131
Step 5: The controlling UEP for the fault - on trajectory is ( δco , 0)
Step 1: From the fault - on trajectory ( δ ( t ), ω ( t )), detect the point δ *
at which the projected trajectory δ ( t ) reaches the fi rst local
maximum of Vp ( . ), and then compute the point δ ¯ that is one step
ahead of δ * along δ ( t) , and the point δ + that is one step after δ *
Step 2: Use the point δ * as initial condition and integrate the post - fault
reduced system Equation (5 – 31) to fi nd the fi rst local minimum of
Σi= n1 fi(δ), say at δ0 *
Step 3: Use δ ¯ and δ + as initial conditions and repeat Step 2 to fi nd the
corresponding points, say δo¯ and δo + , respectively
Step 4: Compare the values of | f ( δ )| at δ o −, δ o*, and δ o +; use the
one with the smallest value as the initial guess to solve (5 – 31), fi ( δ )
= 0, say the solution is δco
Step 5: The controlling UEP for the fault - on trajectory is ( δco , 0)

132
 References
• James Momoh, “Smart Grid: Fundamentals of design
and analysis”, John Wiley & sons Inc, IEEE press
2012

133
UNIT V – RENEWABLE ENERGY
AND STORAGE

134
• SUSTAINABLE ENERGY OPTIONS FOR THE SMART GRID
• Sustainable energy is derived from natural sources that replenish themselves
over of time
• Renewable energy options are meant to provide the smart grid with:
i. Remote utilization and storage of RER resources output
ii. Enhancement of functionality of grid - connected renewable energy systems
(RES)
– a. Facilitating give - and - take of energy from the system
– b. Redistribution/reallocation of unused power from grid - connected RES
– c. Facilitating storage of grid - generated and RER - generated energy by back - up
storage technologies at customer end
– d. Tracking interactions for billing and study
iii. Enhancement of functionality of electric vehicles and plug - in hybrids
iv. Utilization of vehicle battery packs as energy storage devices

135
 Solar Energy
• The PV system generally considers:
i. Insolation: The availability of solar energy conversion
to electricity. Insolation levels are affected by the
operating temperature of PV cells intensity of
light(location - dependent), and the position of the
solar panels (maximize the power tracking while
maximizing perpendicular incident light rays).
ii. Emission: PV emission levels are environmental
friendly
136
• Solar Power Technology
Solar power technology enhances PV output by concentrating
a large area of sunlight into a small beam using lenses,
mirrors, and tracking systems. Parabolic troughs and solar
pow
• Cost Implication: Manufacturers continue to reduce the cost
of installation as new technology is developed for
manufacturing materials. Much work is being conducted in
the manufacturing of PV and the development of superior
materials towers are examples of such technologies

137
• Modeling PV Systems
• The input typically consists of one year ’s worth of hourly
global - direct irradiance, and temperature and wind speed
data
• The model is given by

where for an array of Ns × Nsh solar cells: 138

where
I: current fl owing into load of a solar cell (A)
I sc : short circuit current (A)
I os : saturation current (A)
s: insolation (kW/m 2 )
139
q: electron charge (1.6 x 10 - 19 (C))
k: Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10 - 23 (JK - 1 ))
T: p - n junction temperature (K), t ( o C)
N: junction constant
A: temperature constant
γ : temperature dependency exponent
E g : energy gap (eV)
V: voltage across solar cell (V)
V oc : open circuit voltage of a solar cell (V)
R s, R s_mod : series parasitic resistance for cell and entire module ( Ω )
R sh, R sh_mod : shunt parasitic resistance for cell and entire module ( Ω )
E d, E d_mod : across voltage of an ideal solar cell and entire module (V)
I d , I d_mod : current of an ideal solar cell and entire module (A)
N s : number of series cell junctions of a PV module
N sh : number of parallel cell junctions of a PV module
V out : across voltage of a PV module (V)
I out : current of a PV module (A)
R: connected load ( Ω ) 140
• An alternative equation for the modeling of
the output of the PV panels is

where
G is the incident irradiance
P mp is the maximum power output
P mp,ref is the maximum power output under standard testing conditions
T is the temperature
T ref is the temperature for standard testing conditions reference (25 ° C)
G ref = 1000 Wm − 2
γ is the maximum power correction for temperature

141
where
G is the incident irradiance
P mp is the maximum power output
P mp,ref is the maximum power output under standard testing conditions
T is the temperature
T ref is the temperature for standard testing conditions reference (25 ° C)
G ref = 1000 Wm − 2
γ is the maximum power correction for temperature

142
Wind Turbine Systems
• Wind is one of the fastest - growing sources of renewable
energy throughout the world
• Turbines produce electricity at affordable cost without
additional investments in infrastructure such as transmission
lines. A wind turbine consists of a rotor, generator, blades, and
a driver or coupling device. Compared with PV, wind is the
most economically competitive renewable.
Modeling Wind Turbines
The quantification of the capacity/real power output is given by

143
144
Biomass-Bioenergy
• Bioenergy is the energy derived from organic matter such as corn,
wheat, soybeans, wood, and residues that can produce chemicals and
materials
• Biopower is obtained from a process called gasification, converting
gas to gas turbines to generate electricity.
• Biomass can be converted directly into fluid fuels such as ethanol,
alcohol or biodiesel derived from corn ethanol.
Small and Micro Hydropower
• Hydropower is by far the largest renewable source of power/energy
• Small hydropower generators work in variable speed because of
water flow. Induction motors provide a generator for a turbine
system.
• The hydraulic turbine converts the water energy to mechanical
rotational energy
145
Fuel Cell
• Fuel cells can also be used to enhance power delivery in the smart grid.
They are simply fuels from hydrogen, natural gas, methanol, and gasoline.
• The efficiency for fuel to electricity can be high as 65% since it does not
depend on Carnot limits
• The topology of a fuel cell is a stack which consists of the part of the fuel
cell that holds the electrodes and electrolytic material. Hydrogen is
extracted from gasoline propane, with natural gas refineries to operate fuel
cells commercially.
• The efficiency of fuel cells ranges from 40 – 80%.
• Two commonly used fuel cell types are phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC),
which operate at relatively high temperatures and use an external water
cooling system to cool the stack, and proton exchange membrane fuel
cells, which operate at a lower temperature than most other fuel cells and
contain no chemicals such as liquid acids or molten bases

146
• Geothermal Heat Pumps
• This form of power is based on accessing the underground steam
or hot water from wells drilled several miles into the earth.
• Conversion occurs by pumping hot water to drive conventional
steam turbines which drive the electrical generator that produces
the power. The water is then recycled back into earth to recharge
the reservoir for a continuous energy cycle
• There are several types of geothermal power plants including dry
steam, fl ash stream, and binary cycle. Dry steam plants draw
water from the reservoirs of steam, while both fl ash steam and
binary cycle plants draw their energy from the recycled hot water
reservoir.

147
 PENETRATION AND VARIABILITY ISSUES ASSOCIATED
WITH
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
• The degree of penetration by sustainable energy into today ’ s grid varies
by location, depending on the availability of the conditions necessary for
viable utility. This can be quantified by

The selection and implementation of the available sustainable energy technologies

are subject to the issues of variability associated with the sources, for example, solar
and wind. For solar energy, the variation of the solar radiation is a function of the
time, location, height above the earth ’ s surface, local weather conditions, and
degrees of shading.
There are three apparent sources of variability in wind technology: wind speed
random variability, turning off turbines to prevent damage when wind speed values
are greater than the tolerable limit, and no output when wind speed is less than the
cut - in speed
148
 DEMAND RESPONSE ISSUES
• Energy management involves controlling electrical and mechanical
systems to reduce power needs and the associated costs.
• DR helps to reduce customer demand on the grid that is dependent
on that demand. Abundant data, including price signals and grid
conditions, allow DR technologies to play a significant role.
• Monitoring operating parameters such as voltage, angle, and
frequency of the system are utilized through real - time sensors in
addition to controllers, metering signals, and two - way digital
communication, in responding to changes in the grid and electricity
prices.
• Automatic DR in times of disruption is a key feature of the smart
grid, as are smart meters, smart appliances, and distributed RER.
• To achieve optimal control of demand and fulfill economic and
environmental goals, utilities can show customers how to adjust their
consumption to off - peak time demand to assist in efficient supply
149
The DR applications that can be categorized into four components:
A. Energy Efficiency
B. Price - based DR
a. Time - of - use (TOU)
b. Day - ahead hourly pricing
C. Incentive - based DR
a. Capacity/ancilliary services
b. Demand bidding buy - back
c. Direct load control
D. Time scale commitments and dispatch
a.
c. Years of system
Day - ahead planning
economic scheduling
b.
d. Months of operational
Day - of economic planning
dispatch
e. Minutes dispatch

150
ELECTRIC VEHICLES AND PLUG -IN HYBRIDS
• Vehicle - to - grid power (V2G) uses electric - drive vehicles (battery, fuel
cell, or hybrid) to provide power for specific electric markets. V2G can
provide storage for renewable energy generation and stabilize large - scale
wind generation via regulation.
• Plug - in hybrids can dramatically cut local air pollution.
• Hybridization of electric vehicles and connections to the grid overcome
limitations of their use including cost, battery size/weight, and short range
of application.
• PHEVs provide the means to replace the use of petroleum - based energy
sources with a mix of energy resources (encountered in
• typical electric power systems) and to reduce overall emissions [9] .
• PHEVs offer advantages and disadvantages compared to other proposed
solutions. The deployment of PHEVs potentially has a substantial positive
impact on the electric power system from the point of view of increasing
electric energy consumption, offsetting petroleum fuels with alternative
sources of energy
151
 PHEV TECHNOLOGY
• Through V2G power, a parked vehicle can provide power to the grid as a
battery - electric, fuel - cell, or even a plug - in hybrid vehicle.
• Stored or unused energy that utilities reserve at night or during off - peak
times can be used to support the vehicles in cases of extreme emergencies
• Each PHEV vehicle will be equipped with a connection to the grid for
electrical energy fl ow, a control or logical connection necessary for
communication with the grid operator, and onboard controls and metering
• Electricity flows throughout the grid from generators to end - users while
unused energy flow backs from the EDVs

152
 Impact of PHEV on the Grid
• PHEVs are expected to take 10% of the U.S. market share of
new vehicles sold in 2015, and 50% of the market share by
2025
• It will be critical to study the trends of daily PHEV power
usage and the average power consumption over one day to
determine the impacts on the grid, market, environment, and
economy.
• Peak driving levels will coincide with existing early and end -
of - day peaking hours when users are waking up and heading
to work and when they are home, having supper, and so on.
• During peak hours the increased need for energy may require
users to charge their PHEVs in high - peak hours.

153
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
• Environmental impact mitigation is a major driver of smart
grid development.
• The integration/facilitation of the use of renewable energy
resources for generation and the move towards the use of
PHEVs are two critical aspects of the environmental
implications of the smart grid. In addition the increased energy
efficiency, demand response and load management will result
in a stable development of clean power market.

154
Climate Change
• Climate change is the term commonly linked to the issue of global warming and
cooling resulting from the increased emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG). The
term climate change refers to any distinct change in measures of climate lasting
for a long period of time, that is, major changes in temperature, rainfall, snow, or
wind patterns lasting for decades or longer.
• Climate change may result from:
 Natural factors, such as changes in the Sun ’ s energy or slow changes in the
Earth ’ s orbit around the Sun
 Natural processes within the climate system, for example, changes in ocean
circulation
 Human activities that change the atmosphere ’ s composition and the land
surface
• Global warming is an average increase in temperatures near the Earth ’ s surface
and in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Increases in temperatures in the Earth
’ s atmosphere can contribute to changes in global climate patterns.
• Global warming can be considered part of climate change along with changes in
precipitation and sea level
• Global change is a broad term that refers to changes in the global environment,
155
including climate change, ozone depletion, and land use change.
 STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
• Energy storage is important for utility load leveling, electrical
vehicles, solar energy systems, uninterrupted power supply,
and energy systems in remote locations.
• Energy storage has always been closely associated with solar
installations, including solar heating and PV. Storage options
are particularly essential when variable sources are used in
islanding and standalone power system
• There are two principal reasons why energy storage will grow
in importance with the increased development of RER:
1. Many important RER are intermittent, generating when the
weather dictates, rather than when energy demand dictates.
2. Many transportation systems require energy to be carried
with the vehicle

156
The selection of the proper storage technology is based on the following
parameters:
• Unit Size : Scale of technology. Storage technologies have an associated
range for application, for example, large units support grid - connected
RER technologies.
• Storage Capacity : Total store of available energy after charging.
• Available Capacity : Average value of power output based on the state of
charge/ depth of discharge.
• Self - discharge Time : Time required for a fully charged, non –
interconnected storage device to reach a certain depth of discharge (DOD),
this is contingent on the operational condition of the system.
• Efficiency : Ratio of energy output from the device to the energy input
issue of conversion technology and design of RER and storage and
conversion needed.

157
• Durability or Life - cycle : Number of consecutive charge - discharge cycles
a storage installation can undergo while maintaining the installations and
other specifications within limited ranges. Life - cycle specifications are
made against a chosen DOD depending on the applications of the storage
device.
• Autonomy: Ratio between energy capacity and maximum discharge power;
indicates the maximum amount of time the system can continuously
release energy.
• Mass and Volume Densities: Amount of energy accumulated per unit mass or
volume of the storage unit.
• Cost: Cost of installation, operation, and maintenance of storage technology;
cost should be analyzed throughout system lifespan.
• Feasibility: Degree of adaptability to the storage applications.
• Reliability: Guarantee of service.
158
Comparison of Storage Technologies

159
160
161
 References
• James Momoh, “Smart Grid: Fundamentals of design
and analysis”, John Wiley & sons Inc, IEEE press
2012

162