1 Introduction

Real Time and Embedded Systems – Chapter One

1.1 Definitions (Embedded Systems )
 A general definition of embedded systems is:
embedded systems are computing systems with
tightly coupled hardware and software integration,
that are designed to perform a dedicated function.
 They either cannot or do not function on their
own.
 In some cases, embedded systems can function as
standalone systems
 Multiple embedded systems can coexist in an
embedding system.
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Definitions (real-time systems)
 In the simplest form, real-time systems can be defined
as those systems that respond to external events in a
timely fashion.
 The response time is guaranteed.
 Responding to external events includes
 recognizing when an event occurs, performing the
required processing as a result of the event, and
outputting the necessary results within a given
time constraint.
 Timing constraints include finish time, or both start
time and finish time
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Relationship between real-time
systems and embedded systems
 A good way to understand the relationship between
real-time systems and embedded systems is to view
them as two intersecting circles.
 It can be seen that not all embedded systems exhibit
real-time behaviors nor are all real-time systems
embedded.
 However, the two systems are not mutually exclusive,
and the area in which they overlap creates the
combination of systems known as real-time
embedded systems. 4
Real-time Embedded Systems

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Characteristics of Embedded
System:
 Sophisticated Functionality: The functionality of no two
embedded system applications is bound to be the same.
The functionality of a washing machine is different from that
of a microwave. However, the functionality of a laptop and a
desktop are almost the same.
 Real-Time Operation: It doesn’t mean live operation. It
means the software programs hardware to operate in a
time-bound fashion.
 Low Manufacturing Cost: As an embedded system
design aims for any particular application, it involves less
manufacturing cost as compared to a versatile general
computing system. As a result, embedded systems also 6
Cont…
 Processor and Memory: Depending on the type,
processor and memory requirements may vary. For
instance, small embedded systems would require less
memory, but sophisticated systems demand more memory
and run on multi-core processors.
 Tight Design Constraint: There are many design
constraints to consider around the cost, performance, size,
and power of an embedded system to realize its absolute
performance. These design factors are kept to a minimum
to justify their simple function.

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Characteristics of Real-time
System:
 Time Constraints: Time interval allotted for the
response of the ongoing program. This deadline
means that the task should be completed within this
time interval.
 Correctness: Real-time systems produce correct
result within the given time interval. If the result is
not obtained within the given time interval then also
result is not considered correct.
 Embedded: All the real-time systems are embedded
now-a-days. Embedded system means that
combination of hardware and software designed for a 8
Cont …
 Concurrency: Real-time systems are concurrent that
means it can respond to a several number of processes
at a time.
 Real-time communication: Real-time systems often
require real-time communication between different
components or devices. The system must ensure that
communication is reliable, fast, and secure.
 Scalability: Real-time systems must be scalable, which
means that the system must be able to handle varying
workloads and increase or decrease its resources as
needed. 9
Examples of Examples of Real
Embedded Systems time Systems
 Digital cameras: Embedded systems  Air traffic control systems: These
control the camera's functions, systems must track the positions of
including image processing, autofocus, aircraft and ensure that they do not
and exposure control. collide. If a deadline is missed, it
 MP3 players: Embedded systems could result in a collision.
manage the playback of music files,  Medical devices: Some medical
handle user input, and display devices, such as pacemakers, must
information on the screen. deliver electrical pulses to the heart
 Smartphones: Embedded systems at precise intervals. If a deadline is
power the phone's core functionality, missed, it could be fatal.
including communication, processing,
and running various applications.
 Video game consoles: Embedded
systems handle graphics rendering,
game logic, and user interaction. 10
1.2 Types of real time tasks
 A real time task can be classified into
 Hard real-time task
 Soft real-time task or
 Firm real-time task depending on the consequences of a
task missing its deadline.
 It is not necessary that all tasks of a real-time application belong
to the same category.
 It is possible that different tasks of a real-time system can
belong to different categories.
 We now elaborate these three types of real-time tasks.
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Hard Real-Time Tasks
 A hard real-time task is one that is constrained to
produce its results within certain predefined time
bounds.
 The system is considered to have failed whenever any of
its hard real-time tasks does not produce its required
results before the specified time bound.
 An example of a system having hard real-time tasks is :
o Anti-missile system
o Aerospace and defense: Aircraft flight control
systems, missile guidance systems, and radar 12
Soft real-time
 Soft real-time systems have less stringent timing
requirements than hard real-time systems.
 Missing a deadline in a soft real-time system may
degrade the quality of service, but it will not have
catastrophic consequences.
 Examples of soft real-time systems include
operating systems, and network routers.

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Firm real-time systemsreal-time
 Unlike a hard real-time task, even when a firm real-
time task does not complete within its deadline, the
system does not fail.
 The late results are merely discarded.
 In other words, the utility of the results computed by
a firm real-time task becomes zero after the
deadline.
 Example : Video confessing or satellite-based
tracking of enemy movements
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1.3 Basic Model of a Real-Time System
 In this section try to develop a broad
understanding of high level issues of
the underlying hardware in a real-time
system.
 This figure shows a simple model of a
real time system in terms of its
important functional blocks.
 We briefly describe the roles of the
different functional blocks of a real-
time system:
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Cont …
 Sensor: converts some physical characteristic of its
environment into electrical signals.
 An example of a sensor is a photo-voltaic cell which
converts light energy into electrical energy.
 A wide variety of temperature and pressure sensors are
also used.
 Actuator: converts these electrical signals into some
physical actions on its environment.
 The physical actions may be in the form of motion, change
of thermal, electrical, pneumatic, or physical characteristics
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of some objects.
Cont …
 Signal Conditioning Units:
 The electrical by computers signals produced by a
computer can rarely be used to directly drive an
actuator. The computer signals usually need
conditioning before they can be used by the actuator.
This is termed output conditioning.
 Similarly, input conditioning is required to be carried
out on sensor signals before they can be accepted by
the computer.

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Cont …
 Interface Unit: Normally commands from the CPU are
delivered to the actuator through an output interface.
 An output interface converts the stored voltage into
analog form and then outputs this to the actuator
circuitry.
 The interface takes care of the buffering and the
handshake control aspects. Analog to digital
conversion is frequently deployed in an input interface.
 Similarly, digital to analog conversion is frequently
used in an output interface. 18
1.4 Timing Constraints

 We have seen that the correctness of real time tasks

depend both:
o on the logical correctness of the result as well
as
o on the satisfaction of the corresponding
timing constraints.
 We must first properly characterize the events in a
system, to understand the timing behavior of real-
time systems. 19
Events in Realtime

⬢ An event may be generated either by the

system or its environment.
⬢ Based on this consideration, events can
be classified into the following two types:
⬡ Stimulus Events
⬡ Response Events

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Cont …..

 Stimulus Events: Stimulus events are

generated by the environment and act on the
system.
 For example, a user pressing a button on a
telephone set generates a stimulus event to
act on the telephone system.
 Stimulus events can also be generated
periodically.
 As an instance, consider the periodic sensing of
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Cont …..

 Response Events: Response events are usually

produced by the system in response to some
stimulus events.
 Response events act on the environment.
 For example, consider a chemical plant where as
soon as the temperature exceeds 100°C, the
system responds by switching off the heater.
 Here, the event of temperature exceeding 100°C is
the stimulus and switching off of the heater is the
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response.
Types of timing constraints
 Real-time systems are subject to various timing constraints
that dictate how quickly they must respond to events or
complete tasks.
 These constraints are crucial for ensuring the correct and
consistent behavior of real-time systems.
 Failure to meet timing constraints can lead to:
 System malfunctions,
 Performance degradation, and
 even catastrophic consequences.
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Cont …..
⬢ The 3 main types of timing constraints are:
 Deadline constraints: Specify the maximum allowable time for a
task to complete.
 A task must finish processing sensor data within 10
milliseconds.
 Response time constraints: Determine the maximum time
allowed for a system to respond to an event.
 A user interface must respond to a button press within 500
milliseconds.
 Periodicity constraints: Define the frequency at which a task
must be executed. 24
Reading Assignment

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 Computer Organization Concepts and
1.5
Memory
 Computer organization is a branch of computer science that
deals with the structural design and implementation of
computer systems.
 It encompasses the study of
 The various components of a computer system,
 Their interactions, and
 The principles that govern their operation.

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Computer Organization Concepts and
Memory
 A computer system can be broadly divided into three main
components:
1) Processing Unit (PU): The brain of the computer,
responsible for executing instructions and performing
computations.
2) Memory: Stores instructions and data that the PU needs
to access during processing.
3) Input/Output (I/O) Devices: Allow the computer to
interact with the external world, such as keyboards,
monitors, and storage devices. 27
Memory Organization
 Memory is organized into a hierarchy of levels, each with
different characteristics and performance trade-offs.
 Cache Memory: Small, fast memory located close to the
PU for storing frequently accessed data and instructions.
 Main Memory (RAM): Larger, slower memory that holds
the program and data currently being executed.
 Secondary Storage: Non-volatile storage devices like
hard drives and SSDs for storing large amounts of data
permanently.
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Cont ….
 Computer organization concepts and memory are
fundamental to understanding the design,
implementation, and performance of computer systems.
 By understanding these concepts, we can appreciate
the intricate workings of modern computers and their
ability to perform complex tasks efficiently.

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