RESEARCH METHODS

BY
SANGWANI CHAVULA
 Introduction to statistical principles:
• Statistics is “a science concerned with the
collection, classification, and interpretation of both
qualitative and quantitative data, with the
application of probability theory to the analysis and
estimation of population parameters”.
Main focus of statistics is in all aspects of
experimentation
• planning & design, data collection, data
presentation and processing, data analysis and
interpretation and provide appropriate conclusions
to research objectives.
• Statistical concepts and methods provide a
rich set of tools for analysing and interpreting
data to help extract information and turn the
data into meaningful scientific knowledge.
 COMMON STATISTICAL TERMS
• Population –a population (universe) is a finite
or infinite collection of observable units or the
entire group of objects of a particular type
under study.
• Population parameters- these are descriptive
measures used to summarise the information
about populations e.g. μ- mean; σ-standard
deviation; σ2 variance; N-population size; they
are denoted by Greek symbols
• Experiment- an experiment is a planned enquiry to
obtain new scientific facts or to confirm results from
previous studies.
• Experimental unit:-
- an experimental unit is the physical material to
which one application of a treatment is applied or
-the object/unit which receives a particular
treatment which induces change on that object/unit
and measurements for subsequent analysis are
done on the experimental unit.
e.g. plot, organism, a pig, springbok, tree, a pot, a
fish, a cage, and aquarium etc.
• Random variable:
– -any attribute or characteristic being measured or
observed
– -this is the response measured or observed on an
experimental unit within an experiment and the
resultant set of observations becomes the data set
for statistical analysis.
– E.g. weight, height, lymphocyte counts, amount of
lead, grain yield, milk yield, percentage infestation,
radius of bacterial colony, number of petals on the
flower, are all random variables.
• Data are the actual values or numbers
recorded on a random variable.
• Datum- single value.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
Data can be classified in the following ways:-
1. Categorical vs. numeric (qualitative vs.
quantitative)
2. Nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scaled
3. Discrete vs. continuous
 1. Categorical vs. numeric (qualitative vs. quantitative)

• Categorical data (qualitative data) refers to data

representing categories of outcomes of a random
variable.
• You can only count the number of observations in a
particular category.
Colour of micro-organism colony Code Number
Blue 1 50
Blue-green 2 120
Green 3 23
TOTAL 4 193
Numeric data (quantitative data)
• Are real numbers that can be manipulated using
arithmetic operations (i.e. addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division) to produce meaningful
results.
2. SCALE OF MEASUREMENT
• Data can be defined by its scale of measurement
which indicates how much numeric information is
contained in the data.
• The scale of measurement determines which
statistical methods are appropriate in order to
produce valid results.
• The four scales of measurement are
1. Nominal-scaled
2. Ordinal-scaled
3. Interval-scaled
4. Ratio-scaled
A. NOMINAL; data falls into unordered
categories which can only be described to
distinguish between the categories. The
categories are of equal importance. Types of
nominal data;
– Colour of micro-organism colonies- blue, blue-
green, green
– Sex of animals; - male and female;
– Fish species: - tilapia, trout, mullet
– Fruit type:-banana, apple, pear, orange
Nominal data is the weakest form of data to analyse.
Only limited descriptive techniques can be used to
summarise the data e.g. tables
B. ORDINAL: - the categories have some order in the
description of the variable, there an implied ranking
between the categories. Each consecutive category
possesses either a more or less than the previous
category of a given characteristic.
• E.g. examination grades
C. Interval scale: - sub-classification of numeric data
mainly generated from ratings e.g. responses in
surveys. It has an arbitrary zero point in the scale
which is not a true zero or nothing value. E.g. for
temperature 0 oC does not mean no temperature at
all, but it signifies a measurement of temperature .
D. RATIO SCALED
• This is numeric data and are derived from
direct measurement where zero means
nothing.
• Most data used is on the ratio scale.
• E.g. height of maize 4 weeks after germination
(cm)
• Statistically, the ratio-scaled data is the
strongest and most desirable data to gather
as it lends itself to the widest range of
statistical methods.
 3. Discrete vs. continuous data
• Discrete data (discontinuous data) consists of
whole numbers (integers only).
– E.g. number of children in a family
• Continuous data can validly take any value in
an interval. The measurement can assume any
of the infinitely many non-negative real
numbers (only limited by the equipment used
for measuring) such as 0.1 ,0.01, 0.001 etc.
• E.g. weight, height, concentration.
 DATA COLLECTION
• Types of data

– The primary data are those which are collected

afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to
be original in character.
– The secondary data, on the other hand, are
those which have already been collected by
someone else and which have already been
passed through the statistical process.
• Methods of Collecting primary data
– 1. Observation method
– 2. Interview method
– 3. Through questionnaires,
– 4. Through schedules
– 5. Other methods which include (a) warranty
cards; (b) distributor audits; (c) pantry audits; (d)
consumer panels; (e) using mechanical devices; (f)
through projective techniques; (g) depth
interviews, and (h) content analysis.
A. OBSERVATION METHOD
• is the most commonly used method specially in studies
relating to behavioural sciences.
• In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of
observation is not scientific observation.
• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of
data collection for the researcher, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically planned
and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on
validity and reliability
• In this method the information is sought by way of
investigator’s own direct observation without asking
from the respondent.
ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION METHOD

• subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done

accurately.
• the information obtained under this method relates to what
is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the
past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.
• this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to
respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active
cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be
the case in the interview or the questionnaire method.
 Limitations of Observation Method

• it is an expensive method.
• the information provided by this method is
very limited.
• sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere
with the observational task.
 Types of the Observation Method
• In case the observation is characterised by a
careful definition of the units to be observed,
the style of recording the observed
information, standardised conditions of
observation and the selection of data of
observation, then the observation is called as
structured observation.
a. Observation Method- Unstructured
• But when observation is to take place without
these characteristics to be thought of in
advance, the same is termed as unstructured
observation.
• Structured observation is considered
appropriate in descriptive studies, whereas in
an exploratory study the observational
procedure is most likely to be relatively
unstructured.
b. Participant and non-participant types of
Observation
– Used in the context of studies, particularly of
social sciences.
– This distinction depends upon the observer’s
sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is
observing.
– If the observer observes by making himself, more
or less, a member of the group he is observing so
that he can experience what the members of the
group experience, the observation is called as the
participant observation.
• But when the observer observes as a detached
emissary without any attempt on his part to
experience through participation what others
feel, the observation of this type is often
termed as non-participant observation.
(When the observer is observing in such a
manner that his presence may be unknown to
the people he is observing, such an
observation is described as disguised
observation.)
 Merits/Demerits of Participant type of
observation
• Merits
– (i) The researcher is enabled to record the natural
behaviour of the group.
– (ii) The researcher can even gather information
which could not easily be obtained if he observes
in a disinterested fashion.
– (iii) The researcher can even verify the truth of
statements made by informants in the context of
a questionnaire or a schedule.
• Demerits
– The observer may lose the objectivity to the
extent he participates emotionally;
– The problem of observation-control is not solved.
– It may narrow-down the researcher’s range of
experience.
 c. Controlled and uncontrolled observation

• If the observation takes place in the natural

setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled
observation.
• When observation takes place according to
definite pre-arranged plans, involving
experimental procedure, the same is then
termed controlled observation.
1. Controlled Observation
• In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to
use precision instruments.
• The major aim of this type of observation is to get a
spontaneous picture of life and persons.
• It has a tendency to supply naturalness and
completeness of behaviour, allowing sufficient time for
observing it.
• The main pitfall of non-controlled observation is that of
subjective interpretation.
• There is also the danger of having the feeling that we
know more about the observed phenomena than we
actually do.
2. Uncontrolled Observation
– But in controlled observation, we use mechanical (or
precision) instruments as aids to accuracy and
standardisation.
– Such observation has a tendency to supply formalised
data upon which generalisations can be built with
some degree of assurance.
– Generally, controlled observation takes place in
various experiments that are carried out in a
laboratory or under controlled conditions, whereas
uncontrolled observation is resorted to in case of
exploratory researches.
 B. INTERVIEW METHOD
• The interview method of collecting data
involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli
and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
• This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through
telephone interviews or Skype interview.
a. Personal Interviews
• Personal interview method requires a person
known as the interviewer asking questions
generally in a face-to-face contact to the other
person or persons.
• This sort of interview may be in the form of direct
personal investigation or it may be indirect oral
investigation.
• In the case of direct personal investigation the
interviewer has to collect the information
personally from the sources concerned.
– He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom
data have to be collected.
– This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations.
– But in certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to
contact directly the persons concerned or on account of the
extensive scope of enquiry, the direct personal investigation
technique may not be used.
– In such cases an indirect oral examination can be conducted
under which the interviewer has to cross-examine other
persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the
problem under investigation and the information, obtained is
recorded.
– Most of the commissions and committees appointed by
government to carry on investigations make use of this method.
• Personal Interviews-Structured Interviews
– The method of collecting information through personal
interviews is usually carried out in a structured way. As such
we call the interviews as structured interviews.
– Such interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined
questions and of highly standardised techniques of
recording.
– The interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid
procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order
prescribed.
– In case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the
technique of structured interview because of its being more
economical, providing a safe basis for generalisation and
requiring relatively lesser skill on the part of the interviewer.
Personal Interviews-Unstructured Interviews
– As against it, the unstructured interviews are
characterised by a flexibility of approach to
questioning.
– Unstructured interviews do not follow a system
of pre-determined questions and standardised
techniques of recording information.
– In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is
allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of
need, supplementary questions or at times he
may omit certain questions if the situation so
requires.
– He may even change the sequence of questions. He has
relatively greater freedom while recording the responses
to include some aspects and exclude others.
– But this sort of flexibility results in lack of comparability
of one interview with another and the analysis of
unstructured responses becomes much more difficult
and time-consuming than that of the structured
responses obtained in case of structured interviews.
– Unstructured interviews also demand deep knowledge
and greater skill on the part of the interviewer.
– Unstructured interview, however, happens to be the
central technique of collecting information in case of
exploratory or formulative research studies.
 Advantages of Interview Method

• More information and that too in greater depth can

be obtained.
• Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the
resistance, if any, of the respondents; the interview
method can be made to yield an almost perfect
sample of the general population.
• There is greater flexibility under this method as the
opportunity to restructure questions is always there,
especially in case of unstructured interviews.
• Observation method can as well be applied to
recording verbal answers to various questions.
• Personal information can as well be obtained easily
under this method.
• Samples can be controlled more effectively as there
arises no difficulty of the missing returns; non-
response generally remains very low.
• The interviewer can usually control which person(s)
will answer the questions.
• This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach.
If so desired, group discussions may also be held.
• The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and
thus may secure the most spontaneous reactions than
would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
• The language of the interview can be adopted to the
ability or educational level of the person interviewed
and as such misinterpretations concerning questions
can be avoided.
• The interviewer can collect supplementary
information about the respondent’s personal
characteristics and environment which is often of
great value in interpreting results.
 Disadvantages of Interview Method

• It is a very expensive method, especially when large and

widely spread geographical sample is taken.
• There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer
as well as that of the respondent; there also remains the
headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
• Certain types of respondents such as important officials
or executives or people in high income groups may not
be easily approachable under this method and to that
extent the data may prove inadequate.
• This method is relatively more-time-consuming,
especially when the sample is large and recalls upon
the respondents are necessary.
• The presence of the interviewer on the spot may
over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to
the extent that he may give imaginary information
just to make the interview interesting.
• Under the interview method the organisation
required for selecting, training and supervising the
field-staff is more complex with formidable
problems.
• Interviewing at times may also introduce
systematic errors.
• • Effective interview presupposes proper
rapport with respondents that would
facilitate free and frank responses. This is
often a very difficult requirement.
 BASICS OF INTERVIEWING

• interviewing is an art governed by certain

scientific principles
• Every effort should be made to create friendly
atmosphere of trust and confidence, so that
respondents may feel at ease while talking to
and discussing with the interviewer
• The interviewer must ask questions properly
and intelligently and must record the
responses accurately and completely.
Thanks