PRINCIPLES OF CT SCAN

AND IMAGE
RECONSTRUCTION

DR. NABIL SHERIF MAHMOOD

 COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
• 1972 Godfrey Hounsfield, EMI Ltd.
Demonstrates CT at Annual congress of the
British Institute of Radiology.
• The radiographic examination displayed as thin
tomographic images representing computer-
assisted mathematic reconstructions of body
tissues and contents
• Internal structure of an object can be reconstructed
from multiple projections of the object.
•Better contrast resolution
•No superimposition of tissues.
•3D imaging
 XRAY TUBE
BEAM FILTER

PREPATIENT COLLIMATOR

PATIENT
PRE DETECTOR COLLIMATOR

DETECTOR ARRAY
COMPUTER

MONITOR
 GENERATIONS

• First generation – translate-rotate, one detector,

head only ,5 minute
• Second generation – translate rotate, multiple
detectors, head and body , 30 sec
• Third generation- rotate-rotate. ,1 sec or less
• Fourth generation- rotate –fixed ,1 sec or less
• Fifth generation- EBCT(CVCT) ,very fast , no
motion artifacts,
• Helical CT
• Multislice CT
 EMI Scanner
• Hounsfield 1972.
• Only for brain evaluation.
• Linear and rotatory gantry motions.
• 180 linear movements ,1 degree rotation each
• Axis of rotation passed through the centre of head.
• Transmitted radiation measured 160times per each linear
movement, total-28,800[160x180]
• Scan time for each pair of tomographic sections:4.5 to 5 min
• Total scan time for a clinical study:25 minutes
• CT image was reconstructed
• Displayed on a 80x80 matrix
 Second generation
• Fan beam.
• Multiple detectors- 30.
• Linear and rotatory movements.
• Arc of 30 degree /linear scan, linear movements-
6.
• 10-90 sec scan time
• DISADVANTAGES:
• Increased scatter radiation
• Intensity towards the edges of the beam had to be
reduced by filter because of body shape
 Third generation
• Rotate rotate configuration.
• Fan shaped beam
• Multiple detector arc.
• Upto 700 detectors. Both xenon and
scintillation crystals.
• Duration 1 sec
 Advantages:
• A constant source to detector path length
maintained
• 1. No Crosstalk between detectors
• 2. Better resolution
• Speed:fan beam/multiple detector array
DISADVANTAGE
• Ring artifacts
 FOURTH GENERATION
• Rotate fixed scanner
• Fan shaped beam
• Detector array
• Upto 2000 detectors
• Projections taken at many angles during rotation
of x-ray tube
• 1 sec scan time
• Free from ring artifacts
Higher patient dose
Higher cost
Chances for detector cross
talk
 System components

• The gantry: x-ray tube,detector array,high

voltage generator, mechanical supports
• The computer: image reconstruction
• The operating console: imaging control and
image viewing
 X-ray tubes
• Earlier – oil-cooled fixed anode, large focal
spot 2.25x12mm, energy 120 KV and
33mA.
• New- rotating anode and 0.6mm focal spot.
• Large heat loading( upto 8M HU) and heat
dissipation.
• X-ray tube failure is the principle cause of
scanner malfunction.
 Filters
• X-rays emerging from tube are
polychromatic
• Makes the beam more homogenous
• Decreases the beam hardening artifacts
 High voltage generator
• High intensity beams are produced
• Diminishes the photoelectric absorption-
hence patient dose
• Increases intensity at detector
• Decreases x-ray tube loading and hence
increases tube life
 Collimators
• Two collimators.
• X-ray tube (pre-patient) collimator:affects
the patient dose and determines slice
thickness[voxel length]
• Pre-detector collimator: controls scattered
radiation and improves image resolution
 Detectors
• Scintillation Detectors
• Consisted of scintillation crystal and light detector
– First 2 generations:thallium activated sodium iodide
scintillation crystals optically attached to
photomultiplier tubes
– NaI: HYGROSCOPIC AND LONG AFTERGLOW

– Scintillation crystal-photodiode.
– CsI, BGO,CdWO4.{SHORT DECAY TIMES}
– Attached to photo diodes(silicon)
– All rotate-fixed and some rotate-rotate.
 Detectors

Xenon gas ionization chambers

• Rotate – rotate.
• Ionization of xenon by incoming radiation.
• Low – ionization chamber.
• Intermediate- proportional counter.
• High- Geiger counter.
Xenon gas at 8-10 atm.
1-2mm[wide]x8-10cm[deep].
Anode- copper, cathode -tantalum.
Efficiency 45%:
1.Low density of absorbing material
2.Absorption of xrays by the front window
 METHODS TO INCREASE EFFICIENCY

• Using xenon{heaviest with atomic number 54}

• Compressing xenon 8 to 10 atm to increase the
density
• Using long chamber
• Decrease the width
• Cannot be used in rotate fixed scanners:due to 10
cm long side plates which act as collimators
 DIGITAL ACQUISITION SYSTEM
• Amplified the detector signal
• Transmitted the digital signal to the computer

PREPROCESSING /CONVOLUTION
• Done before back projection
• Done by a convolution ‘filter’
• Involves mathematical manipulation
• Produces a sharper image
 Image Reconstruction
• voxel – tiny elongated block of tissue[volume
element]
• Pixel - picture element.[each square in the image
matrix}
Linear attenuation coefficient (μ)

No = number of initial
photons.
N = transmitted photons.
X = thickness.
N=N 0 e -µ x

N=N0 e – ( µ1+ µ2+ µ3+…. µ80) x

 Algorithms for image
Reconstruction
• Mathematical method of solving
– Back projection.
– Iterative methods.
– Analytical methods.

• Filtered back projection is the type of algorithm

that is used in most machines nowadays.
Back (summation) projection.
 Filtered back projection
• Similar to back projection except that image
is filtered and modified to counteract the
effect of sudden density change.
• Those frequencies responsible for blurring
are eliminated to enhance more desirable
frequencies.
 CT numbers
• Computer assigns a certain number for each
pixel based on the linear att. coefficient
• CT number = K (µt-µw) / µw
• µt= pixel linear attenuation coefficient.
• µw= water linear attenuation coefficient.
• K= 1000.
• Air= -1000.
• Water= 0
• Bone= +1000.
• Unit= Hounsfield.
 Image display
• Monitor for immediate viewing.
• Display matrix 512 x 512.
• 256 shades of gray.
• Window level.[center CT number]eg.-200
for lung
• Window width[range of CT numbers above
and below the window level]
( average CT number +/- 128).
Operating console
 IMAGE QUALITY

•It is the visibility or clarity of the diagnostically

important structures

•NOISE
•RESOLUTION
•PATIENT EXPOSURE
 NOISE(QUANTUM
MOTTLE)
• Deviations in uniformity in viewing a homogenous
object

• Result of statistical fluctuations in the amount of

X- ray photons absorbed by the detectors.

• Can be reduced by increasing the number of

photons absorbed by the detector – increase the patient
dose.
 RESOLUTION
•Two types- spatial and contrast resolution

•Increasing one may decrease the other

•Spatial resolution depends on..

• Scanner design (X-ray tube focal spot,detector
size)
• Computer reconstruction (matrix size).E.g. in a
40 cm field size a resolution of 10 lp/cms requires
800x 800 matrix size
• Display- usually 512x 512 used
• Contrast resolution decreases with noise

• Better low contrast resolution with larger pixels

• CT provides better low contrast resolution than

conventional radiography

•Objects 3mm in size with difference of 0.5% in

density can be displayed
 PATIENT EXPOSURE

• A slice may receive scatter radiation when adjacent slices are

exposed

•Typical doses range from 2 to 4 rads / slice

•For better spatial and contrast resolution it is necessary to

increase the dose
 HELICAL/SPIRAL CT SCANNERS

• Patient moves continuously slowly through the

aperture during the 360 degree circling of xray
tube and detectors
• Volume of tissue examined rather than individual
slices
• Utilize either third or fourth generation type
detector arrangements
• Slip rings replaces the high tension x-ray tube
cables allowing for continual tube rotation
Data Acquisition and Image Formation

• Collimation, Table Speed/Pitch, and

Interpolation Algorithm interact to
Influence
Image Formation and Image Quality
 Data Acquisition

Pitch = Table Movement per Rotation

Slice Collimation
• Contiguous Spiral
Pitch = 1 (10 mm / 10 mm)
• Extended (Non-Contiguous) Spiral
Pitch = 2 (20 mm/ 10 mm)
• Overlapping Spiral
Pitch = 1/2 ( 5 mm / 10 mm)
 Spiral CT
Image Quality (Assuming 180 interp.
algorithm):
• Effective Slice Thickness Increases with
Pitch
• Hence volume averaging increases with
pitch
Radiation Dose:
For Pitch of 1 ~ Same as comparable
contiguous conventional scans
For Pitch 2 - Approximately 1/2 of Contiguous
Scans
• Radiation Dose Proportional to 1/pitch
 FIRST GENER. SPIRAL C.T
• 1972 • 1999
• 300 sec scan time • <1 sec
• 80*80 • 1024 *1024
• 13 mm slice • 1-10 mm slice
• 3 lp/cms • 15 lp/cms
 ARTIFACTS
• BEAM HARDENING ARTIFACTS
• RING ARTIFACTS
• STREAK ARTIFACTS
• MOTION ARTIFACTS
• PARTIAL VOLUME AVERAGING
ARTIFACTS
 Beam Hardening Artifacts
• Polyenergetic x-ray beam
• As beam passes through tissue ,it’s average energy
increases
• As energy increases µ decreases
• Bone causes more beam hardening than soft
tissues
• Rays from some projection angles are hardened to
a differing extent than rays from other angles
STREAK ARTIFACTS
 MOTION ARTIFACTS
• Due to patient movement
• Moving anatomical parts like cardiac
motion
• Causes image blurring
 PARTIAL VOLUME
AVERAGING
• Some voxels contain a mixture of different
tissue types
  is then the weighted average of the two
different  values
• May lead to misdiagnosis
• NEWER DIMENSIONS ARE BEING
ADDED
• NEWER ALGORITHMS
• 3 DIMENSIONAL CT
THANK YOU