Using biological data from real people, Sanofi creates AI-based simulated patients - not actual clones of specific individuals - that can be interspersed across the control and placebo groups within the trial.

She believes that puberty blockers should be an option available for young people questioning their gender and that many will not accept being part of a placebo group in a trial.

In large clinical trials, monoclonal antibodies relieved osteoarthritis pain better than placebo or other drugs, but because some patients experienced worsening joint damage, the treatments were not approved.

After a year on the drug, volunteers with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s performed no better in cognitive or everyday-life activities than those who received a placebo.

He warned a pineal cyst should only be removed in extremely rare circumstances, and believes the operations' successful results could be explained by the "placebo effect".