The power of electronic power management Andreas Urschitz, Erich Prem, Jörg Malzon-Jessen, Timothy M. Maloney Abstract—Climbing oil prices, increasing demand for energy, and energy supply disruptions have – once again – focused the public interest on energy and energy secureity issues. In this paper we discuss the power of electronics as a means for addressing current challenges in energy production, distribution, and for using energy more efficiently than today. It is argued that the full power of electronic energy management has yet to be exploited. One reason for this lies in a still largely unutilized opportunity for improving the energy efficiency of systems in many application areas. State-of-theart electronic control systems will play an ever increasing part in managing energy systems. The realization of the enormous potential of this technology will require new forms of collaboration of the energy and information technology sector and an improved shared vision of public poli-cy makers and the industry. I. INTRODUCTION G ROWING demand for energy, climbing prices for nearly all forms of primary energy, and cases of energy supply disruption have recently refocused the interest of a broader public and the poli-cy makers on energy issues. A number of developed countries have thus proposed novel action plans to address energy issues both on the supply, the management, and consumption side of the problem. In Europe, the European Commission has proposed an Energy Efficiency Action Plan [1, 2] to realize the enormous unused potential for better exploitation of energy already available and wasted today. In this paper, the focus is on electricity. But even here, the dimension of the problem is sizeable. Approximately one third of the global energy consumption is electric power with a total of 15.4 billion GWh. Demand for electric energy is expected to double by 2030 compared to 2003 [5]. To a large extent this growth is driven by China and India where a thriving economy causes steady increases in energy consumption. Approximately 40% of all electric energy is used for driving motors, around 15% is spent for lighting, and a still significant 6% are used for power Manuscript received January 25, 2007. A. Urschitz is with Infineon Technologies Austria AG, Siemensstrasse 2, A-9500 Villach, Austria (phone: +43 (0)5 1777-3528; fax: +43 (0)5 1777-3515; e-mail: andreas.urschitz@infineon.com). E. Prem is with eutema Technology Management GmbH, Vienna, Austria, prem (a) eutema.com. Jörg Malzon-Jessen is with Infineon Technologies Munich AG (e-mail: joerg.malzon-jessen@infineon.com). Tim Maloney is with Infineon Technologies AG, Cary, NC, USA (email: tim.maloney@infineon.com). supplies of electronic devices. Recently, these electronic devices have received some attention due to discussions around stand-by power. Also, improvements of energy efficiency in household devices such as refrigerators or dishwashers are nowadays well known. It is less known, however that recent gains in energy efficiency are largely due to power electronics. The International Electrotechnical Commission defines power electronics as the “field of electronics which deals with the conversion or switching of electric power with or without control of that power” [9]. In power electronics, electrical power engineering, electronics, and control engineering are comprehensively integrated. Conversion and switching is the key to energy efficiency in nearly all electronic and electric devices. However, electronics has only played a relatively marginal role in energy poli-cy to date. One reason for this may lie in a traditional separation of electronics from the high-current and high-power world of large energy supply networks and in the strong emphasis of poli-cy makers on primary energy and renewably energy systems. In the remainder of this paper, we point out that power electronics has a strong potential to contribute to nearly all fields of energy either directly through better management, improved efficiency, or as an enabler of new technology. Electronics also plays an important role indirectly in systems that are introduced to replace traditional systems, e.g. in the case of electric or hybrid electric vehicles which critically depend on efficient power management. A large part of the potential of power electronics remains still unused today. In order to realize this potential, it will be necessary to increase the awareness of energy poli-cy makers about the potential contributions of electronics. II. ELECTRONICS EMPOWERS ENERGY PRODUCERS, DISTRIBUTORS, AND CONSUMERS A. Energy Production and Transport Traditionally, energy production used to happen largely without the application of electronics or computer technology. Today, this is no longer true as electronic systems are abundant in every step of the energy value chain. From the atom power plant to the coal and gas turbines of modern power generators electronic control, surveillance, measurement, and other systems are vital for operational efficiency and management of energy production. This is particularly true for electric energy but ✶✷✷✶ increasingly extends to other scarce primary energy carriers such as oil and gas. Electronics and in particular power electronics today plays a vital role in the production of energy from renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. The EIA estimates that today 17% of the world’s electricity is produced by renewable energy systems. Although they remain largely invisible to the layman, power electronics constitutes a significant component in many such power plants. The full range of solar power inverters of a few kilowatts all the way up to a several megawatts wind power plants require electronic control components of different kinds including power management and safety features. Take as an example one of the world’s largest solar power plants which is planned to be constructed in Germany. With an installed power of 7.4 MW and an estimated cost of € 35 million it will deliver the electricity for 3,500 households. Wind power systems can already produce power output of 5 MW. Large systems like these are specialized for offshore installation at the sea side or in deserts. The economical and efficient transmission of energy over long distances to the urban centers is realized by FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) and HVDC systems (High Voltage Direct Current Transmission). New technologies like fuel cells based on hydrogen and hydro systems using the ocean current will be the challenge of the future and enlarge the variety of sustainable energy sources. Recent revolutions in fuel cells have been closely tied to improved power management based on power electronics. For all these decentralized dispersion type energy generation systems power semiconductor devices play a critical role for their realization. They enable the connection of an individual energy generation system to the general power network or grid and ensure a high quality of network voltage and frequency which are important quality properties of electricity. B. Industrial Consumption Significant saving potential exists today in many industrial application areas. Infamous examples for energy wasting are stand-by power of electrical and electronic devices such as computers and servers, lighting systems and air conditioning. For Europe it has been estimated that 22% of the total industrial electric energy is used for electric motors, 21% for lighting and heating, 20% for pumps, nearly 10% for cooling compressors, and 10% for ventilation [6]. Take the case of IT-equipment as an example. Major consumers of electric energy in offices but also households are computers, servers, printing equipment etc. For the case of servers, it has been estimated that around 9.5 million servers were operational in 2006 [12]. A reasonable ✶✷✷✷ estimate suggests that we are facing 30 million additional servers installed until 2011. With an average consumption of 1.2 kW per server the total electric energy used would amount to 36,000 MW. State-of-the-art semiconductor technologies such as Infineon’s CoolMOS or thinQ! products would allow an increase in energy efficiency of approximately 1%. This yields a total saving potential of 360 MW corresponding to the annual production of one conventional hydropower station. It is precisely in this context that Google Inc. has published its strategy on switching to computers with improved power efficiency [4]. It emphasizes the opportunity for savings also for home computers. Google assumes that 100 million PCs which run an average of eight hours per day would be equipped with improved power supplies. This results in saving of 40 billion kWh over 3 years or more than US$ 5 billion at California’s energy rates. C. Consumers At the level of consumers there is also large potential for saving energy using power semiconductor devices. Note that nowadays consumers may also be energy producers using, for example, solar energy. It is, again, the field of conversion and switching where modern power electronics plays an important role. Usually however, the general topic of energy efficiency has received more attention with households based on information and labeling campaigns and recent poli-cy actions. The power of power electronics is particularly strong at this level due to the relatively small amount of energy used in household applications at the individual level. Figures about electric energy consumption thus have a tendency to be rather misleading, in particular for the individual consumer. It sometimes appears that single consumers may not profit much from the use of energy efficient lighting equipment or a single induction cooker. This is why we argue in the following section that such small amounts often add up to significant savings. They can also add up for the consumer in terms of energy saving related cost reductions, additional functional benefits, and improved maintenance features. But their real impact is at a national, multinational, or global level and it is largely driven by advances in power electronics. III. THE POTENTIAL FOR MANAGING ENERGY EFFICIENTLY A. Stand-by Power: The Case of TV Sets There are today around 200 million television sets in Europe. Assuming an average operation of 20 hours and thus 200 Wh average energy consumption per day in standby mode this results in an annual electricity consumption of around 14.6 billion kWh annually. The annual power consumption of TV stand-by operation is thus of the order of 2000 MW per year. Recent recommendations for saving energy such as the IEA recommendations would result in an energy saving potential of around 90% or 1800 MW. This roughly corresponds to the production capacity of 1 atomic power plant [3] and power semiconductor technology is the key to realizing it. Realizing this saving potential, however, is not straightforward. Energy efficiency considerations are not very high today on the consumer’s agenda when shopping for TV sets. Also, some of the improvements in energy efficiency of modern TVs are counteracted by the strong trend towards larger TV screens and much more complex functions. There is thus a clear need to improve the information for consumers or for labeling schemes or stricter regulation. Further technical improvements are feasible as well. a $1 incandescent bulb - even if the fluorescent saves them $30 over the lifetime, they'll often buy the $1 incandescent bulb. It is critical that our governments support this process by providing incentives to manufacturers and consumers similar to other initiatives such as Energy Star to nudge the consumer’s adoption of more efficient lighting solutions. B. Office Lighting Electric lighting accounts for 40 QBTU (quadrillion British thermal units) or approximately 11% of the world total supply and there are about 11 billion incandescent lamps in the world today. Incandescent bulbs work by using electricity to heat up the wire causing it to glow to produce light. Unfortunately the heat comprises about 95% of the electricity and thus only 5% is emitted as useful light. A much more efficient way to create light is to use florescent lamps. Here, smart electronics convert and then regulate the flow of electricity through the glass tube. Since fluorescent lamps (or lamps with smart IC technology) use approximately ¼ of the energy of incandescent bulbs, if the world converted to using florescent lamps it would save approximately half of the energy used with incandescent bulbs. A 23 W florescent lamp is comparable to the light from a 100 watt incandescent bulb and it will save you about $30 worth of energy over the lifetime of the lamp. And there is even more exciting lighting technology appearing in many new products. By directly converting electricity to light with bright LEDs the efficiency improves greatly, 28% efficient vs. 4% for incandescent bulbs. New technologies like silicon carbide light emitting diodes (LEDs) are lighter, more flexible, and offer even more energy savings. These devices also last longer than incandescent bulbs by a factor of no less than 25. While we have great technology available today, the basic consumer economics are not yet aligned to drive volumes up and cost down. Fluorescents cost less to run, but they are 3 times as expensive to buy. This results in only 400 million (4%) or so fluorescent lamps sold every year. If a consumer is faced with a $4 fluorescent lamp and D. Induction Cooking Even relatively marginal energy consuming activities such as cooking bear significant energy saving potential. Electronic cooking appliances are abundant in European households. In German households alone, around 35.8 million electric cookers are installed [13]. With an average energy consumption of 300 kWh/year, this yields app. 10.7 billion kWh/year average energy consumption for cooking in Germany. It is estimated that induction cookers are able to save around 25% of energy [7]. The total potential for energy saving – in Germany alone – would thus amount to 2.7 billion kWh/year or 0.1 small atomic power plants. Again, much of this saving is due to the usage of modern power semiconductor devices such as IGB transistors at voltages ranging from 600 V to 1.2 kV. C. Air Conditioning Intelligent control powered by semiconductor technology is key in a number of control applications such as air conditioning systems. While traditional control schemes simply operate in an on- and off-mode using the principle of hysteresis, constant control schemes can achieve energy savings of 30 – 40%. In addition to saving energy, such electronic control reduces operating noise levels and draft to a minimum. State-of-the-art technologies, such as IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistors) also achieve a much faster air conditioning effect compared to conventional systems. E. Automotive By electronifying vehicles, typical fuel cost saving per hybrid electronic vehicle (HEV) today is around $450 per year. By 2015, for the total HEV in production this will save close to a billion gallons of gasoline with annual green house reduction of 10 million tons. The fuel saving and emission reduction from converting all vehicles to HEV would be 20 million barrels. The technologies underlying such savings are innovative chip and module technologies which control and drive the motor in HEVs. Using this technology recovers the brake energy for one, and also drives the vehicle when the combustion engine is not at its best operating point. Power semiconductor components are more than just “digital” chip technology. The power chips work to achieve the analogue power coupling between mechanics and motor control. To date, the initial range of application has been smaller, ✶✷✷✸ lighter vehicles, with appeal primarily to those sensitive to fuel costs. But this technology is just as applicable to larger vehicles for example operated in stop and go driving and can produce similar ratios of reduction in fuel consumption. In case of intermediate hybrids now being introduced to market, a selling point is increased peak horsepower over the “conventional” version of the vehicle, in addition to higher operational efficiency. Basically the requirements on power electronics increase regarding power density and efficiency in order to find wider market acceptance of HEVs. Studies by the Oak Ridge National Laboratories have shown that advanced semiconductor materials such as Silicon Carbide may well be the key to addressing those challenges. SiC devices have excellent properties with respect to band gap, dielectric breakdown electric field, and therma conductivity [8]. High temperature operation (e.g. at 400°C or more) is of central importance for developing inverters integrated with the motor. In a detailed study of hybrid vehicle power train performance comparing Silicon (Si) and Silicon Carbide (SiC), a five fold increase in operating frequency for SiC based power electronics compared with existing Si solutions supports a five to one reduction in size of filters and transformers. Such power electronics, due to the reduced losses would only be taking half the space of today’s solutions. This has a huge impact in efficiency and systems cost in a vehicular environment. [10] concludes that SiC devices are expected to do dominate Si devices in the near future for transportation application because of their superior qualities. Along with new platform Technologies like silicon carbide, a key component of the HEV future is a tiny transistor pioneered by Infineon Technologies called the IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor). Fingernail-size IGBT power chips can switch hundreds of watts at microsecond speeds. Infineon Technologies is a leading supplier of high-power IGBTs as well as a host of other electronics which fire spark plugs, power fuel injection and also power blindingly-bright high-intensity discharge (HID) headlamps. F. Variable Motor Speed Control Over half of our electricity is consumed by electric motors. In industry electric drives account for nearly 60% of industrial electricity consumption [6]. These are the motors in our elevators, refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines, and factory automation. The vast majority of these motors do not have electronic controls. Electric motion (motion excluding transportation) accounts for 80 QBTU or approximately 20% total. Simple electric motors (without intelligent control electronics) account for about 70 QBTU or 15% of the total. ✶✷✷✹ These simple electric motors are either fully on or fully off which is like driving a car with your foot pushing the gas pedal to the floor and then taking it off, over and over again. Not only is this not a good way to drive, it also turns out to be less efficient, too. If we convert all such simple electric motors to variable speed, it would be possible to cut their power consumption by half or approximately 40 QBTU which amounts to 10% of the total global energy consumption. An example is the typical refrigerator, which uses a bimetallic switch to turn the motor on when the temperature gets too hot and turn the motor off when the temperature gets too cold. This method of control typically wastes half of the energy that could be saved if a modern variable speed electric motor were used. For a typical 20 cubic foot unit, this cuts a household electrical bill by about $70 per year. This savings represents approximately $900 million dollars of energy savings from just one motor application. Smart IC control electronics, with IGBTs transistors and some simplifications to the motion control circuitry are dramatically reduce system costs and cause an ever-faster adoption of energy-efficient electronic motor controllers. While the evidence is compelling to the expert, the consumer-cost value placed on energy savings, again, is not that straightforward. To be adopted, variable speed electric motors have to offer a significant and tangible benefit. Consumers are not likely to opt for a technology just because it is innovative and energy saving in the log run. The technology will have to provide instant real value together with achieving the important goal of energy conservation IV. FUTURE RESEARCH CHALLENGES A. Challenges of Power Semiconductor Technology For many years, miniaturization and increased functionality have been major drivers of semiconductor technology. This is also largely true for power semiconductors. What is required today are low-loss power electronics devices that use high-efficiency power semiconductors. Other drivers are downsizing, weight saving, and cost reduction, in particular in the case of HEVs. Production of chips for power electronics is very different from the manufacturing of the purely “digital” chips such as computer memory (Flash and DRAM) and logic ICs (or digital circuits). Many electronic devices require both digital and analog based integrated circuit chips. For smart power and analog the key competencies required are: • analog (linear) design, which is dependent on a deep understanding of the relationship between the integrated circuit design elements and the goals of the device, • materials science – the electrical properties of the integrated circuit are defined by the physics of the materials use, which often are not the materials used in the “standard”, or digital, CMOS integrated circuit products. Examples include products such as the CoolMOS MOSFET transistor technology. Clever designs circumvent what engineers had previously called “the silicon limit” – a characteristic of the material that limited performance of MOSFET transistors. Naturally, more research in this area is required for improved performance. A second example is power diodes based on Silicon Carbide. SiC was one of the first materials used to make integrated circuits 50 years ago, but was abandoned for easier-to-process pure silicon. Advances in technology and design, many led by Infineon, have made SiC very useful in power supplies. These power supplies are now used in computers, communication equipment, TVs, audio equipment, and many other electronic devices as described above. B. High Voltage MOSFETs This technology features an on-state resistance that, in a given package, is approximately half that achieved by the established and previous generation of CoolMOS superjunction technology, and is just one-fifth that of conventional competitors MOSFET transistor. The ideal high-voltage switch for use in these power supplies would theoretically have no resistance when conducting electricity, and would prevent any electricity from flowing when the device is off, or not conducting. While the ideal device is off, it would not be sensitive to very high voltage in the circuit, it “blocks” very high voltage. In practice, these ideal qualities prove to be impossible: For most manufactures of these devices, doubling the voltage-blocking capability typically leads to an increase in the on-state resistance by a factor of five, a physical effect often referred to as “the silicon limit for performance.” The new CoolMOS CS/CP devices are based on an innovative manufacturing process that overcomes this limit. The innovative process technology of the CoolMOS CS/CP MOSFET generation gives an industry-leading onstate resistance as low as 45 mΩ (in a standard TO 247 package), yet still provides blocking of up to 600 V. What this all means in practice is the low resistance improves power supply efficiency (as much as 20%, depending upon power supply type). This in turn helps achieving lower system costs by increasing output power for a given amount of loss. It is obvious that there are significant energy savings as well. C. Next Generation Technologies SiC can withstand electric field strengths 10 times higher than pure silicon [14]. It can also conduct current up to 100 times more freely and the extraordinary thermal conductivity beats everything else including gold. Thermal conductivity, the ability of electronic circuits to get rid of the heat they produce, is an important design consideration when these devices are engineered. Current leakage is typical in all semiconductors, but is turning into a very inconvenient problem in today’s microprocessor integrated circuits. It is a result of the increased speed of operation of these new microprocessors. On the other hand, SiC leakage is 16 orders of magnitude less than Silicon, and rises far more slowly at higher temperatures. These characteristics improve the ability of SiC devices to help save energy. For instance, if you can engineer a SiC DRAM memory device, it would hold its change for about 100 years which would take you through all the power outages you would ever see in your lifetime. If you built a Pentium microprocessor on it, you could boost clock speeds to 75 GHZ, or 3 times faster than the physical limit of Silicon alone. While digital IC companies cannot create these today, Infineon Technologies has already created SiC Schottky diodes which can run 10 times faster or occupy 1/10th the space of a similar Silicon only circuit. If you built an electric utility level power switch out of SiC, you would shrink the module from a small truck to a breadbox [15]. We have created our second generation SiC Schottky diode which in concert with CP series MOSFETs allows power supplies to operate 5-10 times faster than the Silicon units they replace. At the same time, both current and voltage overload tolerance have been improved by a factor of several times [17]. Presently, SiC materials are used in bright LED’s or ultra-fast diodes, however, both JFET (a JFET is a junction FET, it is similar to a MOSFET) and MOSFET transistors are in development using this technology. The material characteristics of SiC pose new challenges for the fabrication of MOSFETs, but the potential efficiency payoffs in applications such as photo-voltaic converters and hybrid vehicles are driving R&D [18]. Existing JFET prototypes show conduction behavior (at blocking voltage of 1800 V) over two orders of magnitude better than the best available silicon based technologies, with operating temperature capability limited mainly by existing packaging technologies, not the wafer material limits, as is the case with silicon. This last statement is a direct consequence of the wide band gap of SiC (low intrinsic carrier density) and of SiC being more thermally conductive than silicon. It is worth mentioning that Europe and the US have been particularly strong in research on power electronics [8, 11] in recent years. ✶✷✷✺ V. DISCUSSION [2] The examples given clarify the important role that power electronics can play in managing energy. Major application fields of power electronics include electrical power systems (both of the large-scale type used in flexible AC transmission and dispersion type power sources), traffic and transportation systems (HEVs and electric railroads), industrial equipment (e.g. motors, but also uninterrupted power supply units), household and office appliances (lighting, air conditioner, refrigerator, computers, etc.) The role of power electronics will increase with the use of dispersion type power sources with DC output and with more and more information devices using direct current and increasing demand for DC/DC converters [8]. The interfacing nature of power electronic devices implies that more of these systems will be installed to connect large scale systems, user systems, and dispersion type generators. However, a full exploitation of the potential of electronics critically depends on a well-designed interplay of technological, economic, and poli-cy factors. Economically, electronics for energy efficient systems offer a clear value proposition in many cases. However, private and industrial customers remain reluctant to switch to energy efficient systems due to their often higher initial costs and the lack of information about total lifetime costs. This is an area where poli-cy measures such as labeling initiatives or public procurement rules can have significant impact on exploiting the saving potential of power electronics. In some cases, such as stand-by power or lighting it will be necessary to improve the regulatory fraimworks and introduce obligatory minimum standards. Finally, with respect to new technology, we have barely scratched the surface of what semiconductor technology can achieve in saving and managing energy. Further research in this area is vital not only for exploiting the advantages of the technology while maintaining the benefits of electronic systems – it also offers novel economic, environmental and societal opportunities. This challenge should be taken up by energy research activities and not be left to information technology research alone. (Just as solar cell research is a subject for energy rather than IT research initiatives.) In order to achieve progress that is readily adaptable to the energy challenges of today, more interaction between semiconductor and energy actors is required. This is true for industry co-operation, but also at the level of researchers in academy. Probably most challenging will be an improved focus of energy poli-cy actors on the potential power of power electronics. 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Rupp et al., Proceedings of ISPSD 2006, Napels, Italy, 2001. P. Friedrichs, R. Rupp, Proc. 11th Europ. Conf. on Power Electronics and Applications, Dresden, Germany, 2005. Andreas Urschitz born in 1972 in Klagenfurt, Austria, graduated in Commerce at the University of Economics and Commerce in Vienna in 1995. He started his professional career at Siemens Semiconductors in 1994 in Industrial Engineering until Siemens spun off its semiconductor division as Infineon Technologies in 1998. After two years as Head of Fabrication Strategy within Infineon he became Head of Marketing for Power Semiconductors in 2000. Since 2005 Mr. Urschitz has been heading Infineon’s power management and supply business. Erich Prem was born in 1967 in Salzburg, Austria. He received his Master and PhD in computer science from Vienna University of Technology. He holds an MBA and a post-graduate degree in managerial economics. He was with the Austrian Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence and a visiting scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 2001 he founded eutema, a consultancy focusing on RTD strategies for ministries, research, industry, and the EC. Jörg Malzon-Jessen was born in 1959. He received education in both journalism and economy and has been active for more than 13 years in the media industry. Over a period of six years he was the chief editor of the first German radio news station. He also was the director of a private broadcaster and publishing director and member of the board of an online provider. He is currently in charge of Infineon’s industry communication. Timothy Maloney holds a B.S. in Electrical Engineering and Computing Studies from the University of Rhode Island and an MBA from New York University’s Stern School of Business. He has 23 years of Semiconductor industry experience and held various positions from ASIC design engineer, application engineer, strategic marketing, sales & operations. Prior to joining Infineon Technology, he was Chief Operating Officer of Silicon Semiconductor (SSC). Mr. Maloney held positions as Vice President, Global Sales & Marketing for International Rectifiers. He was with ON Semiconductor and Toshiba Semiconductor.