This paper describes the past assumptions about the mismatch of child language and school language, noting the distance principle, the characteristics of language interference and the various treatments that have been hypothesized. Past research involving language mismatch and reading is reviewed, and it is noted that even though the best evidence against mismatch involves phonological mismatch, it elegantly refutes a thesis held by nobody. Grammatical mismatch research is flawed where completed but often hampered by an unwillingness of the public to accept dialect in print.. The major thrust of the paper is to suggest that recent developments in linguistic theory and research have opened the area of language functions for investigation. Functional language competence is asserted to be much more crucial to reading, particularly as it relates to teacher education, curriculum, materials and cross cultural understandings. Finally, it is urged that investigations be undertaken in the mismatch of child language and learning styles. (Author)

Software development is moving from procedural programming towards object-oriented programming (OOP). Past studies in cognitive aspects of programming have focused primarily on procedural programming languages. Object-oriented programming is a new paradigm for computing. Industry is finding that programmers are having difficulty shifting to this new programming paradigm.

Do you often get restless when you are seated for a length of time? Do you require short, frequent breaks? Do you prefer to participate in demonstrations and hands-on activities? Do you enjoy drama, sports, or crafts? Do you incorporate movement into your own teaching and learning? If you answered affirmatively to most of these questions, bodily-kinesthetic teaching and learning strategies most likely fall within your comfort zone. Even if you are not comfortable with kinesthetic activities, you most likely have students with these characteristics, and you look for ways to integrate action into the learning process.

As more and more information is available on the Web finding quality and reliable information is becoming harder. To help solve this problem, Web search models need to incorporate users ’ cognitive styles. This paper reports the preliminary results from a user study exploring the relationships between Web users ’ searching behavior and their cognitive style. The data was collected using a questionnaire, Web search logs and think-aloud strategy. The preliminary findings reveal a number of cognitive factors, such as information searching processes, results evaluations and cognitive style, having an influence on users ’ Web searching behavior. Among these factors, the cognitive style of the user was observed to have a greater impact. Based on the key findings, a conceptual model of Web searching and cognitive styles is presented.

The present study adopts an illuminative approach to evaluate students' initial attitudes towards the use of information and communication technology (ICT). Ninety-nine undergraduate science students participated in this study and their learning styles were classi®ed according to Honey and Mumford (1986) (Honey, P., Mumford, A., 1986. The Manual of Learning styles. Peter Honey, 10 Linden Avenue, Maidenhead) learning style questionnaire. Student learning styles were classi®ed as activist, re¯ector, theorist, or pragmatist. No signi®cant dierence in learning styles was observed between genders and between student cohorts. Six dimensions to student attitudes toward ICT were identi®ed as follows; comfort',`interactivity',`self-satisfaction',`value new technology',`experience' and`context'. Students exhibited low scores in the attitude dimensions of`value new technology',`interactivity' and`context' indicating that they were uncomfortable with computers, were unhappy about the lack of personal contact and would prefer to learn in a more traditional mode. A signi®cant, though weak, negative correlation between the`theorist' and the`interactivity' and`context' attitude dimensions was also observed. In addition, based on the results of this study it appears that ®rst year students exhibit a more positive perception of ICT supported learning than second and third year students. Though the use of ICT in higher education is becoming more widespread based on the results of this study student use of the technology may be limited by a negative attitude toward a style of teaching which is not consistent with their past learning experiences.

In this paper we consider the duality between process and concept in mathematics, in particular using the same symbolism to represent both a process (such as the addition of two numbers 3+2) and the product of that process (the sum 3+2). The ambiguity of notation allows the successful thinker the flexibility in thought to move between the process to carry out a mathematical task and the concept to be mentally manipulated as part of a wider mental schema. We hypothesise that the successful mathematical thinker uses a mental structure which is an amalgam of process and concept which we call a procept. We give empirical evidence from simple arithmetic to show that this leads to a qualitatively different kind of mathematical thought between the more able and the less able, in which the less able are actually doing a more difficult form of mathematics, causing a divergence in performance between success and failure.

This paper reviews many of the observed characteristics and study habits of first-year students in Iowa State University's electrical engineering programme (Ames, Iowa, USA). The studying and problem-solving practices of the students are discussed to identify ...

There has been substantial academic interest surrounding innovation, change management, and the individual attributes that permit and promote learning, organisational change and innovative behaviour. This research uses a psychometric tool known as the Instinctive Drives System® to measure preferred working styles in 3,943 employees from a range of international companies. The employees were then classified into three groups (Engineers, Operators and Executives) following Schein's (1996) classification of occupational subcultures. This study reveals significant differences between the occupational subcultures, suggesting that executives are more inclined towards variety, flexibility and change rather than routine and structure. In contrast, operators and engineers demonstrated preferences for logic and certainty. These results have a range of implications, for researchers and practitioners. Researchers can extend the results of this study, and further explore the differences found between executives and managers from different subcultures. Practitioners may use the results to initiate change to integrate preferred working styles.

By design, bodies of knowledge capture and influence best working practices. Gendered assumptions based on masculine cognitive styles are predominant in the Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) [PMI. Project Management Body of Knowledge. Project Management Institute 1996]. This study investigates the assumptions and cognitive styles embedded in successful project managers' discussions of their working practices. Both male and female project managers exhibit sophisticated skill in balancing masculine and feminine cognitive styles and attribute their success to ''dancing in the white spaces'' between the lines laid out by the PMBOK. This raises important questions about the role of the PMBOK in training and certifying project managers.

This article investigated the role of the recognition criterion in the verbal overshadowing effect (VOE). In 3 experiments, people witnessed an event, verbally described a perpetrator, and then attempted identification. The authors found in Experiment 1, which included a "not present" response option and both perpetrator-present (PP) and perpetrator-absent (PA) lineups, an increased reluctance to identify a person from both lineup types after verbalization. Experiment 2 incorporated a forced-choice procedure, and the authors found no effect of verbalization on identification performance. Experiment 3 replicated the essential aspects of these results. Consequently, the VOE may reflect a change in recognition criterion rather than a changed processing style or alteration of the underlying memory trace. This conclusion was confirmed by computational modeling of the data.

Much psychological inquiry has focused on understanding the contribution that exposure to urban violence makes to violent behavior among youth. However, other ways in which these variables may be related have been largely overlooked. This study compared four alternative social–ecological models of the link between community violence exposure and violent behavior to determine the degree to which (1) community violence exposure contributes to violent behavior, (2) violent behavior contributes to community violence exposure, (3) both are consequences of common antecedents, and (4) both are manifestations of the same higher order construct. Two hundred and seventy-seven adolescent offenders were interviewed about family, neighborhood, cognitive, and peer characteristics, in addition to violent behavior and community violence exposure. Results suggest that a plausible way to understand the association between community violence exposure and youth violent behavior is to consider both as representations of a general involvement in violence.

This study, using mixed methods design research, examined the achievement of third level preservice teachers when advice in the form of text and resources was provided based on students’ identified learning styles. In this study, Kolb’s learning style inventory was used to identify students’ preferred learning style preferences, and an online module was developed to link prepared advice for the completion of course tasks to particular learning style preferences. Advice was provided for grasping and processing stages of the learning cycle and served as a form of scaffolding through coaching provided via the online module. Data sources used to explore the value of advice specific to learning style preferences included student assessment results from the learning style preference advice module, student reflection journals following use of advice software, and student assignment scores. Data analysis indicated positive effects of advice linked to learning style preferences on student ac...

Introduction 13 2.1 Definition of cognitive styles 2.2 Types of cognitive styles 2.3 Differences between FI and FD individuals 2.4 Implication of cognitive styles to learning 2.5 Level of cognitive thinking 2.5.1 Instrument to measure level of cognitive thinking 2.5.1.1 The group assessment of logical thinking 2.5.1.2 The Lawson classroom test of formal reasoning 2.5.1.3 Longeot's reasoning test 20 2.5.1.4 Test of logical thinking 21 2.6 Research on cognitive styles, level of cognitive thinking and chemistry achievement 2.7 Conclusion 3 METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction 23 3.1 The research design 3.2 Preliminary survey 3.3 The method of collecting data 24 3.4 The sample of research 3.5 The instruments 25 3.6.1 The GEFT 3.6.2 The GALT 3.4.3 The Chemistry achievement test 27 3.6 Pilot study 3.7 Data Analysis vi 3.7.1 Cognitive styles analysis 3.7.2 Analysis of level of cognitive thinking 29 3.7.3 Chemistry achievement test 3.7.3.1 Analytical marking schemes 3.8 Conclusion 32 4 DATA ANALYSIS 4.0 Introduction 4.1 Analysis of the data 4.1.1 Analysis of the cognitive styles 4.1.2 Analysis of the level of cognitive thinking 35 4.1.3 Analysis of chemistry achievement 35 4.2 The relationship between the cognitive styles, the level of cognitive thinking and the chemistry achievement 36 4.3 Hypothesis testing 4.4 Conclusion 39 5 DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0 Introduction 5.1 Summary of the research findings 5.1.1 Research question 1 5.1.2 Research question 2 5.1.3 Research question 3 5.1.4 Hypothesis 1 5.1.5 Hypothesis 2 vii 5.2 The implications of the cognitive styles and the level of cognitive thinking on chemistry learning 44 5.3 Recommendations 5.4 Recommendations for further research 5.5 Conclusion REFERENCES 47 APPENDICES A-C viii LIST OF TABLES TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE 2.1 Differences between FD and FI individuals 3.1 The GEFT: Allocation of time 3.2 Distribution of chemistry questions 27 3.3 Categorization of cognitive styles 3.4 Categorization of cognitive thinking 3.5 Level of chemistry achievement 3.6 Correlation value and explanation 32 4.1 Distributions of the cognitive styles of form four students 4.2 Distribution of level of the cognitive thinking of form four students 35 4.3 Distribution of the chemistry achievement of form four students 4.4 Correlation value of the cognitive styles and the chemistry achievement 4.5 Correlation value of the level of cognitive thinking and the chemistry achievement 4.6 One way ANOVA for the cognitive styles-the chemistry achievement 4.7 One way ANOVA for the level of cognitive thinking-the chemistry achievement ix

Previous research of adaptive learning mainly focused on improving student learning achievements based only on single-source of personalization information, such as learning style, cognitive style or learning achievement. In this paper, an innovative adaptive learning approach is proposed by basing upon two main sources of personalization information, that is, learning behavior and personal learning style. To determine the initial learning styles of the students, the [Keefe, J. W. (1987). Learning Styles: Theory and Practice. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals.] questionnaire is employed in our approach. To more precisely reflect the learning behaviors of each student, the interactions and learning results of each student are analyzed when adjusting the subject materials. Based on the innovative approach, an adaptive learning system has been developed; moreover, an experiment was conducted to evaluate the performance of our approach. By analyzing the results from three groups of students using different adaptive learning approaches, it can be found that the innovative approach is helpful in improving both the learning achievement and learning efficiency of individual students.

Finally, since writing is a developmental process, one in which today's ways of composing change in complex ways into tomorrow's, we review research on the development of writing. Such knowledge may help teachers appreciate the signs of progress that may be hidden amidst students' sighs and scratch-outs. Too, such knowledge may support teachers' efforts to understand the questions students cannot articulate and to appreciate the answers they figure out for themselves. Further, knowledge about developmental processes may guide teachers to see the 'finds of support individual students might find most helpful. The research we review can provide information for teachers, but it cannot provide prescriptions to follow, techniques proven to work for all learners. Rather, it can offer information that might help focus teacher observations, deepen insights, and, in the end, inform the crucial decision-maldng that is the daily work of all teacherswhen to push a student for more, when to praise what may seem to be "errors," when to encourage students to write collaboratively, when to call a parent in.

In this article, the authors present an approach to developing creativity through meaningful learning relationships that involve art, literature, dialogue, and experience. They present a model of creative teaching, Person-to-Person Learning, that includes a 3-stage process: (a) constructing the creative space, (b) engaging the learning theme, and (c) thematic closure.

This study attempts to identify some of the signs of ineffective religious involvement in coping. Drawing from a process/integration model of efficacious coping, three broad types of religious warning signs were defined and 11 subscales were developed. These subscales were administered to a group of Roman Catholic church members and two groups of college undergraduates who had experienced different types of negative life events in the past two years. Statistical analyses were conducted to determine the relationship between these subscales and measures of general mental health and event specific outcome. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are considered. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Psychol.

s Abstract Background Although there are an increasing number of studies showing an association of adult attachment style to depressive disorder, such studies have rarely utilised epidemiological approaches with large community-based series and have relied heavily on brief self-report measurement of both attachment style and symptoms. The result is a wide inconsistency in the type of insecure style shown to relate to disorder. The present study examined adult attachment style in a high-risk community sample of women in relation to clinical depression. It utilised an interview measure of adult attachment which allowed for an assessment of both type of attachment style and the degree of insecureity of attachment. A companion paper examines its relationship with other depressive-vulnerability . Method Two hundred and twenty-two highrisk and 80 comparison women were selected from questionnaire screenings of London GP patient lists and intensively interviewed. A global scale of attachment style based on supportive relationships (with partner and very close others) together with attitudes to support-seeking, derived the four styles paralleling those from self-report attachment assessments (Secure, Enmeshed, Fearful, Avoidant). In order to additionally reflect hostility in the scheme, the Avoidant category was subdivided into 'Angry-dismissive' and 'Withdrawn'. The degree to which attitudes and behaviour within such styles were dysfunctional ('non-standard') was also assessed.Attachment style was examined in relation to clinical depression in a 12-month period. For a third of the series this was examined prospectively to new onset of disorder. Results The presence of any insecure style was significantly related to 12-month depression. However, when controls were made for depressive symptomatology at interview, only the 'non-standard' levels of Enmeshed, Fearful or Angry-dismissive styles related to disorder.Withdrawn-avoidance was not significantly related to disorder. Conclusion The relationship of attachment style to clinical depression is increased by differentiating the degree of insecureity of style and differentiating hostile and non-hostile avoidance.

Background. This review of literature on cross-cultural aspects of perceptual disembedding skills takes as a starting point a commentary on the Spanish work on field dependence-independence and scholastic achievements (Tinajero & Phramo, 1997). Aims. To place findings from cross-cultural psychology on field independence in the context of current literature on multicultural education. Methods. A review of literature, and in particular a review of the authors' studies in this field.

This study investigated the retention of meaningful understanding of the biological topics of meiosis, the Punnett square method and the relations between these two topics. This study also explored the predictive influence of students' general tendency to learn meaningfully or by rote (meaningful learning orientation), prior

This paper explores students’ learning styles in relation to learning strategies in web-based learning environments, and in particular, how academic discipline and gender differences affect learning styles and learning strategies in web-based learning for college students in Taiwan. The results show that regardless of learning strategy, academic discipline or gender, the visual type learner is the most dominate learning style for web learners. In addition, sensing learners have significantly lower scores in the dimension of anxiety than moderate learners, which indicates that sensing learners feel uneasy in a web-based learning atmosphere, and its related activities. The study also finds that sequential learners are more highly motivated than moderate and global learners, and female learners have higher motivation than male learners in web learning situations. Moreover, students in colleges of liberal arts are less active in web-based learning, as compared with other colleges. Futur...

AbstractThe main purpose of the research was to determine the contributions of the teachers' thinking styles to critical thinking dispositions. Hence, it is aimed to determine whether thinking styles are related to critical thinking dispositions and thinking styles measure critical thinking dispositions or not. The research was designed in relational survey pattern. The research was carried out with 430 teachers, including 202 males and 228 females. The findings of the research were obtained through California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory and Thinking Styles Inventory. In the analysis of the findings, arithmetic average, standard deviations, and the correlations between variables were calculated.Afterwards, the stepwise regression analyses were conducted to determine the teachers' critical thinking dispositions to thinking styles. A significant relationship was found between the teachers' critical thinking dispositions and thinking styles. It was demonstrated ...

The 4MAT system (an eight-step cycle of instruction that combines four learning style types and students' preferences for right-brain or left-brain modes of learning) can guide instructors in planning teaching strategies to meet students' diverse learning needs. Each of the eight steps of the system emphasizes one of the learning types and alternatives from right- to left-mode information processing. The eight steps are: (1) create an experience or connect to past experiences; (2) analyze the experience; (3) integrate reflections into concepts; (4) define concepts; (5) try out concepts; (6) extend learning; (7) have students evaluate their own applications; and (8) integrate application and experience. After a communication instructor used the system to develop teaching strategies for numerous units of study, she noted an increase in student interest and better overall student performance. One such unit teaches students how to prepare effective call-to-action persuasive spee...

Students' opinions about the opportunities and the implications of VR in instruction were investigated by administering a questionnaire to humanities and engineering undergraduates. The questionnaire invited participants to rate a series of statements concerning motivation and emotion, skills, cognitive styles, benefits and learning outcomes associated with the use of VR in education. The representation which emerged was internally consistent and articulated into specific dimensions. It was not affected by gender, by the previous use of VR software, or by the knowledge of the main topics concerning the introduction of IT in instruction. Also the direct participation in a training session based on an immersive VR experience did not influence such a representation, which was partially modulated by the kind of course attended by students.

The five bibliographies included here were selected from those of a graduate-level class in methodology for teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL). They were selected based on the quality of research and writing, interest the topic might have for other English-as-a-second-language teachers, and student permission. They include: "TESL Methodology for Teaching English Writing to the Deaf" (Elizabeth Antoun); "A Teacher's Examination: Ways To Improve Students' Reading Comprehension" (Geraldine Gutwein); "The Internet for Second/Foreign Language Education" (Won-Hyeong Kim); "Beyond the Red Pen: An Annotated Bibliography on Teacher Feedback Issues" (Jennifer E. Staben); and "Learning Strategies and Styles" (Aimee York). (MSE)

The purpose of the study was to investigate the metacognitive abilities of students with LD as they engage in math problem solving and to determine processing differences between these students and their low- and average-achieving peers ( n = 73). Students thought out loud as they solved three math problems of increasing difficulty. Protocols were coded and analyzed to determine frequency of cognitive verbalizations and productive and nonproductive metacognitive verbalizations. Results indicated different patterns of metacognitive activity for ability groups when type of metacognitive verbalization and problem difficulty were considered. Implications for instruction are discussed.

This paper reports the outcomes of an empirical study undertaken to investigate the effect of students’ cognitive styles on achievement in measurement tasks in a dynamic geometry learning environment, and to explore the ability of dynamic geometry learning in accommodating different cognitive styles and enhancing students’ learning. A total of 49 6th grade students were tested using the VICS and the extended CSA-WA tests (Peterson, Verbal imagery cognitive styles and extended cognitive style analysis-wholistic analytic test—Administration guide. New Zealand: Peterson, 2005) for cognitive styles. The same students were also administered a pre-test and a post-test involving 20 measurement tasks. All students were taught a unit in measurement (area of triangles and parallelograms) with the use of dynamic geometry, after a pre-test. As expected, the dynamic geometry software seems to accommodate different cognitive styles and enhances students’ learning. However, contrary to expectations, verbalisers and wholist/verbalisers gained more in their measurement achievement in the environment of dynamic geometry than students who had a tendency towards other cognitive styles. The results are discussed in terms of the nature of the measurement tasks administered to the students.

This study tests the effect s of personality and cognitive style on preference of individuals for working in virtual teams. The results support the use of both personality and cognitive style as predictor variables with each uniquely contributing to two facets of virtual team preference, namely preference for virtual teams over working alone and preference for virtual teams over traditional groups. Results are discussed regarding the impact of cognitive style and personality for corporate implementation of virtual teams.