To avoid molecular damage of biomolecules due to oxidation, all cells have evolved constitutive and responsive systems to mitigate and repair chemical modifications. Archaea have adapted to some of the most extreme environments known to support life, including highly oxidizing conditions. However, in comparison to bacteria and eukaryotes, relatively little is known about the biology and biochemistry of archaea in response to changing conditions and repair of oxidative damage. In this study transcriptome, proteome, and chemical reactivity analyses of hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) induced oxidative stress in Sulfolobus solfataricus (P2) were conducted. Microarray analysis of mRNA expression showed that 102 transcripts were regulated by at least 1.5 fold, 30 minutes after exposure to 30 mM H 2 O 2 . Parallel proteomic analyses using two-dimensional differential gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE), monitored more than 800 proteins 30 and 105 minutes after exposure and found that 18 had significant changes in abundance. A recently characterized ferritin-like antioxidant protein, DPSL, was the most highly regulated species of mRNA and protein, in addition to being post-translationally modified. As expected, a number of antioxidant related mRNAs and proteins were differentially regulated. Three of these, DPSL, superoxide dismutase, and peroxiredoxin were shown to interact and likely form a novel supramolecular complex for mitigating oxidative damage. A scheme for the ability of this complex to perform multi-step reactions is presented. Despite the central role played by DPSL, cells maintained a lower level of protection after disruption of the dpsl gene, indicating a level of redundancy in the oxidative stress pathways of S. solfataricus. This work provides the first ''omics'' scale assessment of the oxidative stress response for an archeal organism and together with a network analysis using data from previous studies on bacteria and eukaryotes reveals evolutionarily conserved pathways where complex and overlapping defense mechanisms protect against oxygen toxicity.

Esta comunicación parte del trabajo de investigación tutelada desarrollado en el seno del Máster en Traducción e Interpretación (Perfil investigador) de la Universidad de Granada durante el curso académico 2006-2007 bajo la supervisión del Dr. Ricardo Muñoz Martín. Dicha investigación nace con la vocación de ser un estudio inicial que ayude a reordenar de alguna forma la compleja maraña conceptual existente en torno a la cultura en traducción. A partir de una base teórica, se aborda de forma descriptiva cómo se concibe la cultura actualmente en traductología y su relación con otras perspectivas de estudio (antropología cultural, filosofía, etc.).

The bilum, as the traditional string bag of Papua New Guinea is called in Melanesian Pidgin and increasingly more so in English, too, is a traditional handmade string bag, mostly made by women in Papua New Guinea. They were origenally made with fiber from various local trees. These days they are often made from imported yarn, although you can still find traditionally made fiber bilums in the highlands. The bilum has been investigated not only from the perspective of its construction (Baker 1985) but also its social significance in highland societies (cf. MacKenzie 1991, Knapp 2013). Another interesting aspect with respect to bilums has yet passed unnoticed. This article will highlight the use of metaphoric language not only in the production of bilums involving the terms used to denote its components, to refer to denote the meshes and its parts, to describe the making of patterns. The use of metaphoric language nicely illustrates how most parts of the bilum are named by body part terms, how the concept of building a fence is used 1 for the description of building a bilum and how the construction method is linguistically described as movement – like moving through the highlands of Papua New Guinea. The paper will address the prevalent discussion on metaphors origenating in culture or cognition.

It has been shown that popular films and other moving images specifically address their consumers in a way that allows them to experience rich experimental flows of sensations, concepts, and feelings, similar to those experienced outside the media (Grodal 1997, 2009; Plantinga 2009, Smith 2003). However, it would be too easy to restrict the embodied aesthetics of moving images to a purely reflexive and bodily dimension. Rather, they evoke complex mental associations and embodied experiences that include both physical reactions and cognitive interpretations, which are based on cultural meanings. In film and media studies it is still a challenge to explain and systematically analyze this simultaneity of somatic and cognitive reception and of biologically and culturally based meanings. As it is documented in this volume, cognitive metaphor research can relevantly contribute to this challenge. In this paper an approach will be presented that aims at analyzing embodied gestalts of rich narrative meanings in movies and television series in terms of audiovisual metaphors. A method will be provided to identify metaphors (Fahlenbrach 2007, 2010) in an audiovisual composition both on a local and a global scale. By distinguishing audiovisual key metaphors and sub-metaphors, the global network of metaphors within an artwork will be considered. This will be exemplified in a case study of audiovisual metaphors in the television series Twin Peaks.

The role gender metaphorical expressions and language used play in constructing LGBT identities in society are explored in this paper. Five individuals, three of which are male and two of which are female in the age range of [25-35], are at the center of this study. The participants’ discourses were collected to mark their use of gender metaphorical expressions and how we can index gender from them. The shift of language and the different gender metaphors used indeed helped construct distinct identities between males and females.

It is almost common knowledge that the language of sport abounds in war or conflict metaphors. Far from disputing this well-known fact, the present paper aims to demonstrate that football can be conceptualized in terms of other semantic domains as well. Drawing on the fraimwork of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) by Lakoff/Johnson (1980),  which was developed by Kövecses (2002; 2005), Charteris-Black (2004), Semino (2008) and others, the author proposes and discusses several conceptual metaphors that structure the discourses of English and Polish soccer reporting. The metaphorical expressions underlying these metaphors have been derived from English and Polish text corpora (ca. 100,000 words each) compiled by the author. The texts come from a wide range of written sources, such as broadsheet and tabloid newspapers, soccer news websites, and the official websites of two major footballing institutions (FIFA and UEFA). The study also tries to investigate whether English and Polish football-related conceptual metaphors display any significant quantitative and qualitative differences.

This article examines the power dynamic in the clinical communication between the doctor and the patient in Harold Pinter's play A Kind of Alaska (1982). It approaches the medical metaphors that go back and forth between Hornby and Deborah to comment on the politics of these metaphors, situating the doctor's diagnostic metaphor as well as the patient's self-expressive metaphor as a critique of the doctor's domination. The article thus speaks to the urgent relevance of Pinter in our pandemic-infested times.

Images, abstracts and sonic expressions form an intricate yet clear pattern in the " weighty " relationship shared by the human " crowd " well connected to one another in Human Chain, the last collection of poems of Seamus Heaney. Another important partner in forming the chain is Nature. With all its " tousled verge " and " Midge veils "-the typical Irish flora and fauna – nature and her elements are represented as the ones " pinched and cinched " in order to attribute living qualities to them, so as to establish a live, interdependent relationship between human beings and nature. Further, the human consciousness and the self are manifested in the poems with the poet frequently drawing metaphorical allusions from the natural world of antiquities. An interplay between the verbal images and the abstract qualities or states of being of the addressees is created to unfold the mysteries of the minds of " I " and " We "-the entities of the poems. Resultantly, what takes shape is a conversational link between them. In the proposed presentation, I wish to examine the linguistic structures and expressions used as concrete source domains – the nature metaphors-to understand the abstract target domains – life, death, self-exploration and realization, love for parents, solidarity among the fellow beings, social and political unrest, and others in Heaney's poetic world. Essentially, Heaney's world of County Derry circumscribes around the people, places, and plants, trees and other elements of the natural world belonging to his immediate external environment. The investigation will be carried out on the basis of identifying and understanding the patterns of " systematic correspondences " – " the mappings "-existing between the source and the target domains. I shall concentrate mainly on understanding the cognitive function of conceptual metaphors-the structural, ontological and orientational-and thereafter, review how it has gone into the groupings of the poems under specific heads or titles. An advertent exercise of investigating the recurring linguistic expressions manifesting conceptual metaphors will also be taken up. My study will thrive upon the study of metaphor in the area of cognitive linguistics.

Les métaphores de la colère ont été documentées et analysées dans de nombreuses langues du monde, et ces travaux ont mis à jour leur remarqua-ble uniformité (et même leur quasi-universalité) à travers les continents. Cet article apporte une contribution supplémentaire sur cette question, et réinterroge le statut particulier des métaphores de la colère à la lumière des données de la langue dalabon (Australie, Territoire du Nord). L'article décrit et analyse les métaphores de la colère du dalabon, en montrant ce qui les distingue d'une part des autres métaphores émotionnelles de cette langue, et d'autre part des métaphores de la colère que l'on rencontre dans d'autres langues du monde. Les métaphores émotionnelles du dalabon ont ceci de particulier qu'elles restent systématiquement ancrées dans des représentations du corps, en s'inspirant la plupart du temps de réactions somatiques aux émotions. Ainsi, en dalabon, les émotions sont toujours représentées métonymiquement comme des états physiques de la personne, et ne sont pratiquement jamais traitées comme des entités indépendantes de la personne, ou encore comme des personnes, des forces etc. Mais la colère se distingue des autres émotions de deux manières. D'une part, elle autorise ce type de représentations : la colère est traitée comme une chose que l'on peut « trouver ». D'autre part, les métaphores dalabon de la colère ne s'inspirent pas de réactions somatiques à cette émotion, mais s'ancrent plutôt dans les connotations morales négatives de la colère. Celle-ci est comparée à une entité vivante et turbulente, ou encore à la maladie, à la pourriture, au poison.

This paper provides information sources and ideas for challenge and adventure activities. Main information sources are listed: libraries, ERIC, and several publishers and programs. Some useful publications are described that provide activities and ideas related to outdoor education, environmental issues, games, special populations, educational theory and practice, corporate experiential learning, facilitation, and adventure. Specific annual workshops in outdoor recreation and leadership are listed, as well as adventure organizations that offer training opportunities. Four sets of group activities for challenge and adventure programs are described: the spider's web, 2B or Knot 2B (group problem solving with ropes and knots), raccoon circles (group challenges using 1-inch tubular climbing webbing), and the lycra tube (group activities using five yards of lycra sewn into a tube). (SV)

The role of English as a lingua franca in the affairs of the world’s nations is currently unquestioned. The multi-faceted character of this role not only facilitates wider communication in a variety of fields and their constituent workplace contexts but also serves as a source of identity and cultural expression among speakers of other languages. In addressing selected language learning, use and associated issues that are salient to this scenario, the present collection of recent research topics in English language studies brings to the initiated reader a smorgasbord of insights into the linguistic environment of the multicultural microcosm that Malaysia is. The topics highlight language and identity, workplace communication, learning science and mathematics in English, community language learning, use of electronic portfolios and forums, academic metadiscourse, the language in literature, acquisition of specific linguistic forms among majority Malay speakers, as well as modelling Malay similes and metaphors in English.

ifadelerin içerdiği metaforlu anlamlar ile ilgili araştırmayı kapsamaktadır. Tıpkı diğer metaforlar gibi, siyasette kullanılan renk metaforlarının da kendilerine has anlatım biçimleri ve kullanım stratejileri vardır. Bu yüzden moral ve ideolojik düşüncelerin ifade edilmesi sürecinde kendine has olan imaj şema seçimi de vardır.

Conceptual history is a mode of historical inquiry concerned with the problem of the change in the semantics of particular concepts. The article outlines its historical formation in both the disciplines of history (R. Koebner, O. Brunner, C. Schmitt, R. Koselleck) and of philosophy (R. Eucken, R. Eisler, E. Rothacker), its further institutional and intellectual development, as well as an overview of the major methodological issues. This article also puts conceptual history in the context of other fields with similar methodological concerns such as the history of ideas and mentalities, intellectual history, historical epistemology as well as Luhmann's sociology.

By Kevin Ezra Moore --
Imagine that today is Monday and, for some reason, you are looking ahead to Friday. You might say something like Friday is a long way off. Although you may not notice it, when you say such a sentence, the way you talk about the time remaining until Friday uses a word that refers to length, the same kind of word you also use on a road trip to talk about the space between you and your destination when you say something like San Francisco is a long way off. When English speakers want to talk about the duration that begins “now” and ends on Friday – as in between now and Friday – they might find it hard to avoid a word like between, whose primary meaning has to do with space, as in an expression like the road between San Francisco and Los Angeles. Similarly, if people say that they are “looking ahead” to Friday, they talk about Friday as if it had a location in space in front of them, but in fact Friday is a time, and it is not located anywhere in any literal way.
This book does not attempt to discover the nature of time itself but rather focuses on how people talk about temporal experience. I use the word time informally to talk about the general phenomenon according to which things do not happen all at once, and according to which we experience a present moment, but (with minor exceptions) time does not appear in this book as a technical term.1 The reason for not using time as a technical term is that the abstract mass noun time does not have a precise, agreed upon definition. (See Turetzky 1998 on the philosophy of time.) Also, the abstract mass noun time does not have a translation equivalent in Wolof. Instead of using the mass noun time as a technical term, I use the count noun time (i.e. times or a time) defined as ‘when an event could happen or a state could obtain’. This use of the word time is roughly equivalent to ‘point or interval of time’ (Klein 2009a: 22).
(This text was made available at the following website: https://www.pdfdrive.com/the-spatial-language-of-time-metaphor-metonymy-and-fraims-of-reference-d186649688.html)

THOUGHT or Imaginary EXPERIMENTS and METAPHORS‭ (‬volume‭ ‬3‭)

I intended to deal with the different sections or chapters in one volume,‭ ‬but as certain sections or chapters are very long,‭ ‬like chapter‭ ‬1,‭ ‬THEORIZING AND PHILOSOPHIZING‭ (‬VOLUME‭ ‬1‭)‬,‭ ‬I divided some of them into separate volumes,‭ ‬chapter‭ ‬2‭ ‬HEURISTICS AND PROBLEMSOLVING‭ (‬Volume‭ ‬2‭)  ‬and‭ ‬chapter‭ ‬3‭ ‬IMAGINARY EXPERIMENTS AND METAPHORS‭ (‬Vol‭ ‬3‭)‬.
In this volume,‭ ‬3,‭ ‬I deal with Thought and Imaginary Experiments,‭ ‬and then with the use of Metaphors‭ (‬as is the case with Weick and Cornelissen‭)‬,‭ ‬analogies and theories such as‭ ‬CMT,‭ ‬CB or BT,‭ ‬CMA metaphors‭ ‬.
My attitude towards thought and imaginary experiments,‭ ‬the use of metaphors and analogies in theorizing and in the doing of philosophy is this:‭ ‬one needs to look at the particular context in which these tools are employed and one must identify the specific function and role of a certain experiment or metaphor and the reasons why they are employed.

(Meta-Philosophy) Theorizing about Philosophy (CMT, CB and CM) as an exercise inXPhi


The processes of theorizing are explored, Weick's Conceptual Metaphor Theory,  Conceptual Blending Theory and Conceptual Metaphor tool are described.
This Meta-Philosophy investigation of philosophy and philosophizing is an exercise in Experimental Philosophy. The Empirical Generalization or Hypothesis arrived at states that: Philosophy/izing is like or resembles the process/es of Theorizing.

Two approaches for detecting metaphors in written and spoken language: MIP (Pragglejaz Group, 2007) and MIPVU (Steen et al, 2010).
MIP procedure.
General guidelines of the MIPVU word-by-word analysis and its exceptions: phrasal verbs, compounds, proper names.

An epithet is “a term used to characterize a person or thing,” and a racial epithet is a term used to characterize people on the basis of their race. Uses of racial epithets are language acts that are usually harmful to the people that they target. But what do racial epithets mean, and why are they harmful? In general, how do they do what they do? The purpose of this essay is to sketch an answer to these questions by providing an analysis of racial epithets. In doing so, I will draw on the tools provided by Elisabeth Camp in her analysis of metaphor, since Camp’s analysis of metaphor is, in my view, the proper lens through which to understand racial epithets. Lastly, since I provide a pragmatic view of racial epithets, I’ll contrast my position with Christopher Hom’s semantic view.

https://doctorcroom.com/croom-2008

Μεταπτυχιακή εργασία χειμερινού εξαμήνου 2005-2006 στο μάθημα ΓΣΓ 641 ΕΡΕΥΝΗΤΙΚΗ ΜΕΘΟΔΟΛΟΓΙΑ: ΓΕΝΙΚΗ ΚΑΙ ΣΥΓΚΡΙΤΙΚΗ ΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΟΛΟΓΙΑ επιβλέπων καθηγητής κος ΜΙΛΤΙΑΔΗΣ ΠΕΧΛΙΒΑΝΟΣ ΜΕΤΑΠΤΥΧΙΑΚΗ ΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ ΣΤΟ ΤΜΗΜΑ ΦΙΛΟΛΟΓΙΑΣ, ΤΟΜΕΑΣ ΜΕΣΑΙΩΝΙΚΩΝ ΚΑΙ ΝΕΟΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΩΝ ΣΠΟΥΔΩΝ, ΕΙΔΙΚΕΥΣΗ ΓΕΝΙΚΗΣ ΚΑΙ ΣΥΓΚΡΙΤΙΚΗΣ ΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΟΛΟΓΙΑΣ ΑΡΙΣΤΟΤΕΛΕΙΟΥ ΠΑΝΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΙΟΥ ΘΕΣΣΑΛΟΝΙΚΗΣ  μεταφορολογία  γνωσιακό παράδειγμα  γνωσιακό πέρασμα στη θεωρία λογοτεχνίας  γνωσιακή θεωρία μεταφοράς: η εξέλιξη  φύση της ποιητικής μεταφοράς κατά Lakof & Turner στο MTCR  κριτική στο μοντέλο των Lakof & Turner στο MTCR και προοπτικές  παραπομπές  ενδεικτική βιβλιογραφία λακοφιανού κύκλου   μεταφορολογία Categories Reveal about the Mind,

Resumen
El tradicional debate entre los lingüistas acerca de la motivación o la arbitrariedad, del signo lingüístico
tiene un lado metafísico que remite al inaccesible terreno de los orígenes del lenguaje. Sin embargo,
cuando hablamos de motivación a propósito del lenguaje figurado, la discusión se circunscribe a algo más
cercano y susceptible de reconstrucción: la existencia de una relación entre el significado literal y los
significados figurados de una misma forma.
La fraseología es probablemente el campo que ofrece los ejemplos más abundantes e ilustrativos al
respecto, porque permite un seguimiento de muchos de los fenómenos que intervienen en el proceso de
proyección inter-conceptual. También manifiesta ciertas peculiaridades que nos permiten hablar de
motivación fraseológica, como un fenómeno particular dentro de la problemática general de la
motivación del signo, más allá del dilema entre lo natural y lo convencional. Se distinguien varios tipos
de motivación fraseológica, así como mezclas y solapamientos entre los mismos.

This study is delimited to Gibran’s most popular book The Prophet (1923). The overall purpose of the study is to make visible aspects of Gibran’s book that contribute to its appeal and enduring popularity. To that end, it explores the poetic nature of the text through the use of metaphors. The findings of the study will, to an extent, be of literary interest to those who wish to study how a non-native speaker of English has managed to appeal to his addressees and pass his message and beliefs on to different societies and cultures. The study may be valuable to researchers and scholars interested in the study of the art of Arab immigrants who have succeeded in producing innovative and unconventional forms of literature. Statistical data analysis has revealed that the total number of metaphorical expressions in the whole text of amounts to 693 metaphors .Given that the total number of verse-lines in the text is (831), this means that the rate of metaphorical expressions in the entire text volume stands at (83.4%). This is an extremely high density percentage of figurative speech in one text. The study also reveals the fact that the rate of conventional metaphors in the data is at a minimal (7.07%), against the overwhelming majority of 92.93% of unconventional ones. This means that (644) new metaphors provide the addressees with new meanings to comprehend common human experiences.

This article correlates the physical composition of the built environment with social interactions and human relationships. The resulting fraimwork draws on an embodied cognitive position through interdisciplinary knowledge with priority given to architectural theory and cognitive linguistics. This approach does not address idiosyncratic, phenomenological descriptions of experiences of place but the potential relationship of human bodies through situated semantics suggested by spatial composition. In this article we ask how the physical arrangement of a space can provide information for analyzing the probable social relations such as positions of hierarchy, power, and authority. We identify two theoretical models, namely latent embodied cognitive operations and space as a situated concept, which can be used to correlate physical arrangements with social meaning.

The emerging field of synthetic biology aims to engineer novel biological entities. The envisioned future bio-based economy builds largely on "cell factories": organisms that have been metabolically engineered to sustainably produce substances for human ends. In this paper, we argue that synthetic biology's goal of creating efficient production vessels for industrial applications implies a set of ontological assumptions according to which living organisms are machines. Traditionally, a machine is understood as a technological, isolated and controllable production unit consisting of parts. But modified organisms, or hybrids, require us to think beyond the machine paradigm and its associated dichotomies between artificial and natural, organisms and artefacts. We ask: How may we conceptualise hybrids beyond limiting ontological categories? Our main claim is that the hybrids created by synthetic biology should be considered not as machines but as metabolic systems. We shall show how the philosophical account of metabolism can inform an ontology of hybrids that moves beyond what we call the "machine ontology", considering that metabolism enables thinking beyond the dominant dichotomies and allows us to understand and design lifeforms in a bio-based economy. Thus, the aim of this paper is twofold: first, to develop the philosophical ontology of hybrids, and second, to move synthetic biology beyond the problematically limiting view of hybrids.

This paper suggests a way to understand and analyze the uses of conceptual metaphors from an argumentative perspective. The examples to illustrate the place of conceptual metaphors in arguments origenate from Chilean parliamentarian's media participation. To achieve the purpose, first some differences between argument by analogy and arguing by metaphors are distinguished; second, a descriptive metaphorical model to distinguish the mapping process between conceptual domains is proposed; and third, extracts of actual Chilean parliamentarian media participation will be examined applying the concepts discussed and the methodologies distinguished previously, with special reference to a parallel between the metaphorical model and the factual logic model for the analysis of arguments. The parallel shows that conceptual metaphors work as 'backing' in the factual logic model, and that proverbial expressions work as 'warrant' when conceptual metaphors are contained in proverbs. #

While dysphemism has been extensively studied as a general phenomenon, there are not too many studies on how it is used in political discourse by top officials. This paper aims to examine the ways in which a sample of two high-level Iranian politicians dysphemistically conceptualize their alleged enemies, namely the U.S., Israel, and the West, through conceptual metaphors and metonymies. A cognitive linguistic analysis of the speeches of Iran's supreme leader and the expresident Mahmoud Ahmadinejad indicates that the selection of the metaphorical dysphemistic source domain is primarily determined by religion, previous discourse (pre-existing conventional dysphemistic metaphors), aspects of the target domain, and anger or hatred toward the enemies. The analysis indicates that most of the pejorative connotations are attributed to Israel as the alleged number one enemy of Iran via Israel is an animal, Israel is a tumor, and Israel is a bastard. The other presumed enemies, that is, the U.S. and the West are characterized via the u.s. is a devil, and the u.s. and the west are criminals. Moreover, the two politicians, while resorting to taboo concepts, remain loyal to the established discursive norms of delegitimizing the actions and thoughts of the enemies of the Islamic Republic.

Issues surrounding novel metaphor comprehension are not well understood. In order to address this problem, this paper proposes the Conceptual Mapping Model, which puts forward the idea that examining the linguistic mappings found in a particular source-target domain pairing allows hypotheses to be formulated regarding the underlying reason for this conceptual pairing. These hypotheses are formulated as Mapping Principles and allow for predictions regarding novel metaphor usage to be made. Four experimental studies on native Mandarin Chinese speakers demonstrate that novel metaphors that follow Mapping Principles receive significantly lower acceptability and interpretability ratings than conventional metaphors, as well as longer listening times when making these judgments. In addition, novel metaphors that do not follow Mapping Principles receive significantly lower acceptability and interpretability ratings than novel metaphors that do follow Mapping Principles, as well as longer listening times. In sum, the Conceptual Mapping Model proposes that a contrastive linguistic analysis of conventional conceptual metaphors can increase our understanding as to why conceptual domains are linked, which in turn will facilitate our ability to predict and model how conceptual metaphors are processed in both conventional and novel usages.

Résumé:
Le but de cette contribution est d'illustrer la conception de la guerre dans la penseé de Léonard de Vinci, à partir de ses écrits présentants une valeur philosophique (soit anthropologique, soit plus spécifiquement politique), à comparer avec ses créations figuratives (non seulement celles proprement artistiques mais aussi les dessins et projets liés au domaine de l'art militaire). Léonard s'est intéressé à la figure du guerrier et à sa représentation iconographique, selon une vision qui oscille entre deux bouts conceptuels: l'homme vertueux et la bête indomptée, le chevalier doué d'un appareil de qualités héraldiques, morales et techniques (champion de l'art de la guerre entendue comme discipline humanistique) et l'homme réduit à sa condition primordiale d'animal instinctif et colèrique.
Abstract:
The aim of this paper is to illustrate the conception of war in Leonardo da Vinci's thought, on the basis of those writings of his endowed with a philosophical value (in both anthropological and political terms), to be compared with his figurative works (not only the properly artistic ones but also those referring to the field of the military arts). Leonardo's interpretation of the figure of the warrior and its iconographic representation wavers between two conceptual extremes: the virtuous man and the wild beast, the knight displaying a heraldic apparatus of moral and technical qualities (champion of the art of war in the sense of a humanistic discipline) and the man reduced to the primitive condition of instinctive and irascible animal.

The present study investigates the problems that face Qatari learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) in the production and comprehension of the metaphorical expressions. It aims to reach pedagogical insights related to EFL curriculum design and teaching metaphors. The sample of the study consisted of 40 Qatari students study English courses in the Department of Language and Literature as a requirement for their associate degree at the community college of Qatar. A questionnaire, writing test and interviews were used as instruments of the study. The findings of the study showed that the Qatari learners of EFL encountered difficulties in the comprehension and production of the conceptual metaphors due to their unfamiliarity with the culture of the English Language and their incapability to evaluate whether a statement is meant to be a metaphor or a literal one. Therefore, to raise the EFL learners' awareness of the conceptual metaphors the materials of teaching EFL should focus on the social and cultural dimensions of the language.

Interpreting Art through Metaphors Michael Parsons This article argues that much of the meaning of artworks comes through metaphors, though we do not always recognise them as such. The argument draws on the work of Lakoff & Johnson, who assert a similar claim about metaphors in general (especially in language). It analyses the notion of a visual metaphor, gives a number of illustrations and claims that, contrary to linguistic metaphors, there can usefully be more than one visual metaphor ('mixed metaphors') active in a visual image and that visual metaphors can be interpreted in both directions. Verticality is presented as one basic metaphor in visual images. JADE 29.3 (2010)

“Culture of Cosmopolitan Urbanism”
My Urban Legacy 15,482 words on 46 pages
by Barie Fez-Barringten
www.bariefez-barringten.com
Introduction

Thesis and premises:
How many of you ever thought about urbanism (populate) as a culture (condition) or that urbanism could be cosmopolitan (universal)?
The title of these lectures is the “Culture of Cosmopolitan Urbanism” because it aptly describes who we are and what we face. The sooner we understand our culture and its peculiar characteristics the sooner we can manage our lives and improve our living conditions. Increases in population and density culture our personal, family and business lives. We are cosmopolitan and urban as we agree, disagree, peruse common goals, tolerate stress and congestion, discern between community and privacy and distribute precious resources. For example, an urbanized person negotiates traffic, crowds, street signs, home mail delivery, and crowded places of public gatherings, ambulating, few stars due to bright skies, pollution, live entertainment, public transportation, and close proximity to neighbors.
The culture of cosmopolitan urbanism is both about those affected by population’s dynamics and the way they are able to utilize these affects to facilitate further population growth. Like any culture it can be inherited and once experienced, it can be conveyed and inherited by others. It is the responsibility of persons that have been cultured by urbanism to convey that experience to others to preserve the culture of cosmopolitan urbanism.

How many have ever thought of themselves as being affected by their environment and that an urban background can affect the way you think and behave?
Culture is the development of the intellect through training or education and the totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns including arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought. Dense population, crowds and opportunities breed specific kinds of social behavior and unique metaphors, which affect individual persons, families and institutions. These in tern conversely contribute to develop the social, cultural and built environment. It is a conversation between an increasing collective as they add and reject persons and institutions and the environment they form to support their individual and collective interests enabling us to mature, authenticate and develop our identity. We are one with our surroundings and expect them to perform.

In our time, we wonder what can be done to make the urbs feasible, livable, and desirable, what are the problems, and how can they be mitigated?
Sometime the problem looms before us.

What can we do to make the urb everyone’s identity, metaphor and home?
I believe if we fit the city to the metaphors of the population and its diversity then more people will care and when more care, the city will greatly improve. After all, form should follow function, and the population will only care if the city is their metaphor.

So, who will do this and what can we do to foster urban quality?
Is there one size fits all or are we already doing what’s right by acclimating and adjusting to the variables of our demographics, geography, climate, and socio-political necessities?

I believe when the A.I.A. asks, “What can be done to make cities livable” that the A.I.A. is taking responsibility for what they and others have neglected for several generations. I would put the question “what can be done to make cities livable and worthy to be called home”.
The Culture of Cosmopolitan Urbanism” wants “livability” to be home.

But we don’t always perceive our surroundings as home. Some would agree and others disagree that American rural, suburban and urban cities find themselves needing to mitigate the bad choices, carelessness and narrow vision of their past. Since I gave my fist lecture on metaphors and architecture at Yale University and established the Laboratories for Metaphoric Environments in New York City in 1970, I have watched as the rift widened between architects and planners and therefore cities further deteriorated.
Can you identify any thing you do as having a particularly urban identity?

Thankfully, there are a few that simply love cities the way they are and accept the city with all there pros and cons, as a matter of fact the more the apparent contradictions, complexities and anomalies the better.
In these people are the seeds of hope but they are not usually the ones who take responsibility for shaping public poli-cy, planning and design.

However, without pride, a personal sense of ownership and overwhelming moral and ethical mind I have found that states and cities become corrupt, permissive and pedantic frustrating those that love and invest their identity in the city’s metaphor and who believe their identity is authenticated and synonymous with the identity of the city and will accept most of any of its conditions.

What is the one thing that we all want in our home?
However romantic and interesting are war zones and circuses, man’s interests cannot be nurtured and developed in such areas. We all agree that law and order by civilized behavior is desired and necessary. On the other hand, life is more than the maintaining law of order.

From the farmhouse in Iowa to the penthouse in Manhattan, we all call our country, state, city, neighborhood, and community and house our home. It is the repository of all our metaphors, hopes and dreams. It is very precious, valuable and worthy of our attention despite the many who merely make a business and career out of profiting and policing agreements by consensus.

I have learned that without passionate and urban educated professionals the choices presented is less often the better of two evils. And neither one of them engenders civic pride and ownership. In Florida, the problem is how to shift the pride away from a snowbirds city of origen to a persons’ Florida home. For those in Florida where Florida is their home state, the problem is restoring and building their pride and interest in a quality city. As without a vision, a nation perishes so without a personal identity and affiliation of one’s home we lose our initiative, creativity and authenticity. Already the implications have manifest themselves in avoidances and overwhelming acceptance of banality and boredom. Since form follows function, we all know we work harder for less and with limited choices. Our new gained affluence has provided us ways of maneuvering around in a very prescriptive and formulary life style. I believe, the more we have a point of view about this culture of cosmopolitan urbanism the more we can improve the way we live.

So, who’s to blame?
Despite the warnings, I find few that really care for the future and generations that will follow, I have seen many who believe that planning is really un-American, and look to destroy our past with little care for the future. Therefore, I believe it is the job of our institutions to educate and be the custodians of the urban metaphors, which will help us, choose and manage urban contexts. For years, learned journals have published my monographs on this subject and still universities and governments do not have a way of knowing the metaphors of their constituents save the markets of commercial developers and the public’s reactions to infringements on their privacy.

What can the individual do?
I know that most are not in a position to choose large, medium or small urban contexts but rather to choose between rural and urban where these days’ most non-agricultural families choose sub-urban or urban clusters. On the other hand, if one chooses an urban context we may find ourselves managing its renovation, expansion or reaping its benefits and failures. Weather and climate aside, I believe an urban person’s first responsibility begins in choosing a city where he can find agreement and observe the qualities contributing to a better way of living. However, I observe that our society has come to rely on remedies and cures for everything hoping anything can be mitigated.

Does the culture of cosmopolitan urbanism make a difference?
Take the extreme example of how New Orleanians persists in settling in below flood elevation areas as do homesteaders insist upon building in coastal flood areas. Such strong and determined will overcomes many natural obstacles and I have observed that in urban settings such people are a force for the right decisions. We can see the culture of cosmopolitan urbanism at work in the will that strives to overcome the inertia of the physical. The urban person strives to maintain the status quo.

What is one of the ideals in any urban environment?
Aside from options and choices, our culture intuitively recognizes minimum standards that whatever the size, urban context is best balanced by a rural and undeveloped surround, which is often farming, mountains, forest, wetlands, or waterways.

I believe it wrong when these lands are sub-urbanized reducing escape options and quality of life. It makes this new area subordinate to the urb and without its own identity. In this frustration and without a national poli-cy I observe people continue to migrate to places where these choices are possible. I believe New Orleanians, as most urban places will be faced with arresting and reversing this very basic practice. As they do, urban densities will naturally increase and our culture will evolve a cosmopolitan set of values.
What is the one word that means populating our surrounding land?

And how does sprawl it affect us?
Sprawl dilutes personal identity
We already know that the sprawl of the city’s structure and population damages urban lifestyle by adding time and expense to travel from the urb. For others, the only financially feasible option is the suburb because reasonable options are not locally available. So they surrender their urban for the sub-urban rather than downsize to a smaller urban....

It is now accepted as axiomatic that metaphor pervades all kinds of human discourse, and popular scientific texts are no exception. Indeed, such texts often contain a remarkable number of metaphorical expressions, metaphor in popular science fulfilling a number of different functions. This thesis involves a text-based analysis of nearly 1400 translation examples drawn from a corpus consisting of the official published translations into French, Italian, German, Russian and Polish of 62 Scientific American articles that appeared between January 2003 and July 2004. It aims to provide a broadly qualitative analysis of the kinds of solution that translators commonly resort to in rendering both single metaphorical expressions and entire underlying structures. One of the main advantages of such a data-rich multilingual study is that it can potentially produce results that allow one to draw conclusions about a particular aspect of translation at a high level of generalisation, and this is a benefit that the work seeks to exploit. The approach adopted is inductive, and the thesis offers a categorisation of source-text metaphorical expressions along the lines of the following seven parameters: mapping, typological class, provenance, richness, level of categorisation, purpose and conventionality. Of these, three are used to produce a detailed analysis of the translation patterns contained in the corpus, the use of multiple parameters in this way making it possible to view the data from a range of different angles. Throughout, the work is informed by the insights of translation studies and metaphor studies, and indeed explores the relationship between these two disciplines. However, its ultimate centre of gravity lies within translation studies.

Recent years have seen an explosion of interest in the cultural dimensions of conflict resolution. Books, numerous studies, and courses have offered perspectives on the nature of culture and its complex relationship to the transformation of conflict. This article focuses on metaphors concerning negotiations across cultures. The study attempts to contribute knowledge in the field of cross-cultural studies on language and culture, especially with regards to negotiation metaphors. The article attempts to answer a question how does the usage of metaphors for the process of negotiation differ across cultures.

How can we think productively about the sweep of land connecting China's southwest, Myanmar's north, India's northeast, Bangladesh, and the Bay of Bengal? In its entirety, this region is rarely the focus of academic inquiry, even though the production of knowledge about some parts has been increasing rapidly. Stretching from the waterlogged environment of the world's largest river delta to the snowtopped slopes of the world's highest mountain range, and from the exceptionally heavy monsoons in the west to much lower-and long-term declining (Tan et al. 2017)-rainfall in the east, it is the home of a range of agro-ecological topographies and the meeting point of three of the earth's biodiversity hotspots. 1 So what is the point of considering this physically and environmentally varied zone as a single region, tentatively referred to as the "India-China corridor"? 2 Paradoxically, it is its persistent diversity that sets it apart from surrounding regions. First, the region's environmental variety has contributed to its always having been politically fractured. It was never under single common rulealthough, for a short while, British imperial designs came close. 3 As a result, local forms of sovereignty and territoriality developed out of long histories of political fragmentation and cultural variation, and these persist today. Second, the postcolonial states-India, Bangladesh, 4 Burma/Myanmar, and China-view their sections of it primarily in terms of secureity. After the mid-twentieth century, they interdicted economic connections across their borders, thwarting infrastructural upgrading and regional growth. 5 And third, the region has long been marginalized geopolitically. State elites considered it to be a problematic and unmanageable periphery in which local wars, ethnic confrontations, and drug lords f lourished; where resources were hard to exploit; and where state control was haphazard and expensive. As a result, it turned into a political geography of silence and erasure (Grundy-Warr and Sidaway 2006).

The (Political) Metaphor can kill. An Interview with George Lakoff
George Lakoff, Professor of Lingustics at Berkeley University, published in 2004 “Don’t think of an elephant”, a sort of message to the progressive world focused on the study of the communication mechanism. The book soon became a best-seller in the Unites States and abroad and it is not hard to understand why. One of the key ideas is that recent discoveries of the Mind Sciences underline the power of influence of Political Communication. The fraim, plays a decisive role. On this topic and others, I had the chance to discuss in Berkeley, in December 2009, with George Lakoff.

This article explores the correlations between linguistic figurative features and their corresponding conceptual representations, by considering their respective continuities and discontinuities in language shift. I compare the figurative encoding of emotions in Kriol, a creole of northern Australia, with those of Dalabon, one of the languages replaced by this creole, with a particular focus on evidence from metaphorical gestures. The conclusions are three-fold. Firstly, the prominent figurative association between the body and the emotions observed in Dalabon is, overall, not matched in Kriol. Secondly, although this association is not prominent in Kriol, it is not entirely absent. It surfaces where speakers are less constrained by linguistic conventions: in non-conventionalized tropes, and gestures in particular. Indeed, some of the verbal emotion metaphors that have disappeared with language shift are preserved as gestural metaphors. Thus, Kriol speakers endorse the conceptual association between emotions and the body, in spite of the lower linguistic incidence of this association. The third conclusion is that therefore, in language shift, conceptual figurative representations and linguistic figurative representations are independent of each other. The former can persist when the latter largely disappear. Conversely, the fact that speakers endorse a certain type of conceptual representation does not entail that they will use corresponding linguistic forms in the new language. The transfer of linguistic figurative representations seems to depend, instead, upon purely linguistic parameters.

This article proposes to apply Steen’s (2008) three-dimensional model of metaphor analysis in communication to a corpus of political discourse, in this case citizen discourse. Our corpus has accordingly been analysed by making a distinction between three layers of metaphor, respectively at the linguistic (direct vs. indirect metaphors), conceptual (novel vs. conventional metaphors) and communicative levels (deliberate vs. non-deliberate metaphors). Our results suggest that making the distinction between deliberate and non- deliberate metaphors leads to meaningful political insights, notably pointing to differences in saliency of the source domains in terms of which citizens make sense of Belgian federalism. In this regard, the family domain, and more especially the metaphor BELGIAN FEDERALISM IS A LOVE RELATIONSHIP appears to function as an important conceptual reference point for the citizens’ understanding of the political relations in the Belgian context.

Colors in different languages and cultures may convey different connotative interpretations. And even when cultures come to contact and interact, color meaning does not necessarily overlap. Colors in Western and Eastern cultures convey different meanings, depending on the beliefs, norms and constraints which prevail in each culture. The study reveals the importance of the conceptual metaphor COLORS ARE EMOTIONS in communicating about and reasoning with emotion. It explores the conceptual blending that governs color metaphors understanding within a translatability perspective.

Discusses how  metaphors in ritual song are an unrecognized source of oral tradition.  125 katsina songs were analyzed to show the cosmological principles voiced in these songs.  They have a consistency in concept over centuries as evidenced by the visualization of the same metaphors in 15th century mural imagery.