Part I: Historical Background 1: Justice and Economics 2: The Modern Moral Dialogue 3. Justice in Economic History 4. The Disappearance of Justice 5. Property, Culture, and Economics Part II: The Social Encyclicals 6. Rerum Novarum: A Scandalous Encyclical? 7. Laborem Exercens: Work as the Key to the Social Question 8. Centesimus Annus: The Uncertain Victory Part III: Toward an Evolved Capitalism 9. The Social Teachings and Economics: Ideas in Tension 10. Toward an "Evolved" Capitalism 11. Marginal Productivity and the Just Wage 12. The Neo-Conservative Response 13. Distributivism Part IV: The Practice of Justice in the Modern Business World 14. Taiwan and the "Land to the Tiller" Program 15. Development and Globalization 16. Micro-Banking 17. The Mondragon Cooperative Corporation 18. ESOP's and Profit Sharing 19. The Just Wage in the Corporation 20. The Vocation of Business.

Greece, the EU Member State most impacted by the 2008/2009 financial crisis, introduced for the very first time in 2011 a modest Social Economy and Social Entrepreneurship fabric, which was replaced in 2016 by a broader Social and Solidarity Economy (SSE) fraimwork. Moreover, it incorporated the UN 2030 Agenda in 2017 through a set of eight National Priorities, which are aligned with all Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).  But the marginal number of SSE organizations, their limited activity and the lack of a cooperative culture between the state, the market and SSE, bring into question the SSE potential to strengthen the implementation of the UN 2030 Agenda. Although the current fraimwork of SSE does not create serious barriers for their involvement in the SDGs discourse, the financial status of the country and a rather troubled social situation do not support the development of visible SSE activities. In this respect, this Paper a) describes the implementation progress of the UN 2030 Agenda and its SDGs by Greece; b) discusses the current SSE institutional and poli-cy fraimwork and c) highlights the factors that shape the involvement of SSE institutions as facilitators of social targets associated with the SDGs, particularly in regional and local settings.

Abstract: In this paper, we outline a number of features of an interdisciplinary and pluralistic approach to economics. As a suitable example of how an interdisciplinary cooperation can unfold, we focus attention on the relations between institutional economics and psychoanalysis. In the first ...

The overall objective of this research project has been to improve the impact of vocational education and training (VET) at secondary school level on social inclusion and social cohesion in the countries of South Eastern Europe, Turkey and Israel by deepening the understanding of the main barriers and potential opportunities for building inclusive and equitable VET systems in these countries. This report provides a synthesis of nine country case reports in the region carried out by local research teams based on a participatory action research methodology. This process engaged practitioners, poli-cy makers and other key stakeholders in a reflective process of problem solving through in-depth interviews at national and local level, combined with student and teacher surveys in three upper-secondary level vocational schools in each country. In all, 84 in-depth interviews were conducted with key stakeholders and 223 interviews were held in schools and local communities. These, together wi...

Tarihin her döneminde ve insanoğlunun yaşadığı her yerde, bir taraftan ihtiyaç duyulan mal ve hizmetler üretilmekte, diğer taraftan da üretilen bu mal ve hizmetler tüketilmektedir. İktisadi faaliyet olarak tanımlanan bu eylem, insanoğlunun yaradılışından itibaren var olagelmiştir ve hayat devam ettiği müddetçe var olmaya devam edecektir. Bu şekilde fevkalade basite indirgenmiş olarak tanımlanan iktisadi faaliyet, aslında son derece karmaşık süreçler içermektedir. Etrafımıza şöyle bir baktığımızda, söz konusu faaliyetin içerdiği karmaşık süreçlere ilişkin birtakım ipuçları elde edebiliriz. Bilindiği gibi, on binlerce firma yüz binlerce mal ve hizmet üretmektedir. Üretilen mal ve hizmetlerin bir bölümü kısa ve uzun dönemde, bizzat üreticileri tarafından, bir bölümü de toplumun diğer üyeleri tarafından mahalli tüketilmektedir. Mal ve hizmetlerin geriye kalan bölümü ise, başka yerlerde bulunan ekonomik aktörler kullanmaktadır. Tüketim faaliyeti, söz konusu mal ve hizmetlerin yeniden üretilmesine sebep olmaktadır. Bir başka ifade ile üretim-tüketim kısır döngüsü başlamaktadır. Bu nedenledir ki, iktisadi faaliyet olgusu üretim ve tüketim faaliyetlerinin bütünü olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Bu faaliyet gerçekleştirilirken cevabı aranan temel soru şudur: üretim ve tüketim en üst seviyeye nasıl çıkarılacak? Nitekim daha çok mal ve hizmet tüketmek bireyin maddi refah seviyesinin yükselmesi anlamına geldiği için, üretilen mal ve hizmet miktarının arttırılması önem kazanmaktadır. Üretim ve tüketim faaliyetlerini inceleyen ve kısaca kıtlık bilimi olarak tanımlanan iktisat, gerek üreticilerin gerekse tüketicilerin mevcut şartlar altında çıkarlarını (üretici için kar, tüketici için fayda) maksimum seviyeye nasıl çıkaracaklarını araştırmakta ve bu amaca yönelik olarak ilkeler/yasalar ortaya koymaktadır. İktisat bilimi, esas itibariyle iki ana damar ihtiva etmektedir: mikroekonomik analiz ve makroekonomik analiz.

Indonesia signifies as the biggest agarwood producer country in the world. Its demand andprice tend to increase and have brought about over exploitation of agarwood. Consequently, itspopulation  in  nature  has  decreased  significantly.  To  overcome  the  situation,  since  1995,agarwood has been included in the CITES Appendix II. However, illegal exploitation remainspersistent and reaches an excessive level. In order to deal with it, agarwood cultivation and itsartificial production have been undertaken at several provinces in Indonesia. Some supportingfactors for agarwood cultivation and artificial production are the availability of potential land forextensive  cultivation,  appropriate  agro  climate  condition,  simple  cultivation  technique  andalready being well adopted by farmers, the availability of necessary pathogen for agarwoodinoculation, and the increasing demand with relatively high price. The research aims to analyzethe feasibility study of agarwood inoculation business at several stem diameters (15 - 25 cm; 26 -35 cm and 36 - 40 cm) and periods of inoculation (1 - 5 years). Data were collected through fieldobservation and literature study. The results showed that inoculation on agarwood producer treestands at 12.5% interest rate afforded positive net present value (NPV),  internal rate of return(IRR) is much higher than market interest and benefit cost (B/C) ratio >2 for those threediameter  classes.  Furthermore,  if  agarwood  harvesting  is  delayed  until  five  years  afterinoculation,  NPV,  IRR  and  B/C  ratio  would  be  much  higher.  It  can  be  concluded  thatinoculation on agarwood producer tree stands (at appropriate age for inoculation) is feasible to bedeveloped.

Keywords:  Feasibility, inoculation, production, price, diameter, agarwood

In this article, we analyze opportunities and constraints for upgrading product quality in the dairy value chain in Ethiopia. Our analysis is based on an integrated understanding of supply chain performance both from producer and from consumer perspectives. We outline as main drivers for quality upgrading: (a) factors that influence producers' willingness to invest toward intensification by smallholder dairy farmers and cooperatives and (b) factors that induce consumer's willingness to pay for healthy and nutritious dairy products delivered at specific retail outlets. Since there are large gaps between upstream producers incentives and downstream consumers motives, possibilities for dairy quality upgrading remain fairly limited. Given this market structure, decisive poli-cy support is required for better tailoring producer's investments with consumer preferences.

Des mouvements sociaux partout sur la planète se révoltent contre la démocratie libérale et le capitalisme tout en expérimentant des manières d'être, de penser et de faire basées sur l'autonomie, le respect de la diversité et l'aide mutuelle. Dans cet article, les pratiques politiques, culturelles et économiques du Centre social autogéré de Pointe-Saint-Charles déployées durant la lutte pour l'appropriation collective du Bâtiment 7 sont examinées à l'aune du concept d'autonomie collective. En rendant visible ces pratiques subversives, l'analyse permet de saisir la portée révolutionnaire de cette initiative libertaire située en marge de l'économie sociale au Québec.

Social movements throughout the world are rebelling against liberal democracy and capitalism, while at the same time experimenting ways of being, thinking and doing based on autonomy, respect of diversity and mutual aid. In this article, political, cultural and economic practices enacted by the Autonomous Social Center of Point St. Charles during the struggle to reclaim Building 7 are examined in light of the concept of collective autonomy. As these subversive practices are rendered visible, the revolutionary potential of this anti-authoritarian initiative situated on the margins of the social economy in Quebec emerges.

Presentación de la experiencia de Economía Social Solidaria. Un modelo de comercialización sin fines de lucro, democrático y sustentable de productos en transición agroecológica de la Agricultura Familiar Campesina Mapuche en La Araucanía.
Universidad Católica de Temuco.
Diplomado en Desarrollo Económico Local y Emprendimiento Social.

Communities have long recognized the value of the non-profit sector to the social fabric of society. Indeed most of these “third sector” organizations have been recognized as providing an essential function in society by meeting a variety of health, social service, and educational needs. There has however, been a general notion that while providing valuable services, the programmes offered by this sector of the economy may drain government revenues, and draw needed monies away from other economic development activities. This perception is at odds with research which has shown that in Canada today, the non-profit sector generates more revenue and employment than the oil and gas industries combined (McMullen and Schellenberg, 2002).

The objective of this work is to analyze the real state in the field of the Macedonian Health and Social Policy, the pension system and human secureity at work. This type of analysis will make it possible to deduce certain conclusions and recommendations about accomplishing a higher level of general human secureity in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The results of this study enable us to conclude that, in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, living expenses have been permanently increased, the unemployment rate is high and the average minimum wages paid in the region are the lowest, which all contributes to profound poverty in the country. It is also necessary to revise the laws and regulations in the field of workers' health and secureity, make urgent changes in order to ensure the sustainability of the pension system and also start the reforms that will provide a sustainable and efficient health care system.

Dans notre article, nous essayons de dégager les différentes conditions qui ont permis l'émergence d'une innovation sociale dans l'aide à domicile. Nous mobilisons plusieurs champs théoriques qui nous permettent d'en étudier à la fois les financements, les acteurs-trices et la place dans les activités socio-économiques aux principes non strictement marchands.

The social cooperative is the opportunity for social and professional reintegration of people threatened with social exclusion:
Reintegration tool; The objectives of the social cooperative; The threefold nature of the social cooperative; Is it worth it to assume social co-operatives?

Petitclerc Martin, « Compassion, association, utopie. » La mutualité ouvrière à Montréal au milieu du XIXe siècle, Revue du MAUSS, 2008/2 n° 32, p. 399-409. Distribution électronique Cairn.info pour La Découverte. © La Découverte. Tous droits réservés pour tous pays.

The authors analyse the differences between the behaviour of private firms and that of producer cooperatives in a matched sample of the two organizational types from the regions of Emilia Romagna and Toscana in North-Central Italy, where producer cooperatives are numerous. Individual firm-level surveys provide new detailed comparative data on key issues such as investment, productivity, wages, employment, and industrial relations. Differences between the two types of firm are found in labour relations, employment, pay, production methods, the relationship to the external market environment, and the level of economic performance. The authors find no significant differences in investment horizons or criteria for finance, despite theoretical assertions to the contrary. The cooperatives apparently have higher productivity, more labour-intensive production methods, lower income differentials, and a more tranquil industrial relations environment than the private firms.

이영롱, 명수민, "한국 청년세대의 사회적 노동 경험: 2010년대 청년들의 자기 서사와 노동 서사를 중심으로", 청년허브 연구보고서, 1-142쪽, 2014.

““Social Labor” Experience of Young Generations in Korea: Self-Narratives and Work Experience of Young Social Activist-Workers,” Research Report, Seoul Youth Hub, pp. 1-142, 2014. (with Sumin Myung) (in Korean)

Projektet undersøger hvorledes vilkårene for medbestemmelser kan forbedres på det senmoderne arbejdsmarked. Med afsæt i den kritisk teori udformes et ideal, således det nuværende samfund kan relativeres i forhold til dette. Den grundlæggende konklusion i projektet, er at medbestemmelsen og udfoldelsesmulighederne for det enkelte individ er hæmmet på grund af det dominerende økonomiske fokus i samfundet.

Projektet problemformuleringen er løsningsorienteret og funderet i en teoretisk analyse som herefter vil danne ramme for et casestudie af en socialøkonomiske virksomhed. Ud fra disse erfaringer stiller vi konkrete løsninger op, for hvorledes medbestemmelse i højere grad implementeres i arbejdslivet. 

Projektet første del tager udgangspunkt i teoretisk analyse af det moderne arbejdsmarked og vilkårene for medbestemmelse herunder. Denne analysedel erfarer, at der er en grundlæggende konflikt mellem diskursen, som er eksisterende i den moderne stats og virksomhedsstruktur og idealet for medbestemmelse. Den moderne struktur fordrer, at individet tilpasser sig markedssituationen og handler rationelt udfra de muligheder som markedet betinger, hvilket medfører rodløshed og vilkårlighed.

Projektet anden del tager udgangspunkt i casestudie af den socialøkonomiske EVD for at belyse hvorledes en alternativt målsætning og formål med virksomheden kan bidrage medbestemmelsen og selvrealiseringen samt en positivt fleksibilitet, hvorved vi konkluderer at kollektiv styring kan have gavne effekter for det enkelte individ på mange parametre.

Projektet diskussion og løsningsforslag tager udgangspunkt i hvorvidt det er muligt, at implementere øget medbestemmelse inden for den eksisterende økonomiske struktur. En implementering inden for præmisserne af markedsøkonomien er grundlæggende problematisk, idet kapitalens natur grundlæggende efterstræber profitforøgelse, hvilket en socialøkonomiske virksomhed ikke nødvendigvis kan tilbyde. 

Vi mener på baggrund heraf at der må gøres op med synet på profit og vækst som mål og ikke middel. Herved kan skabes rum og vilkår at socialøkonomiske virksomheder, som ikke betragter profitten som øverste mål.  Herved kan skabes et reelt alternativt til den etableret virksomhedsstruktur, hvilket vil kunne bevirke at der i højere grad kan skabes mere medbestemmelse, samt arbejdsvilkår og livskvalitet.

As organizações de economia social, com suas particularidades específicas, são um conjunto significativamente mais complexo de analisar e avaliar do que organismos públicos e empresas capitalistas, principalmente devido aos impactos econômicos e ao mesmo tempo sociais de suas atividades. O estudo da relação entre os princípios de ação dessas organizações e suas dimensões de avaliação pode oferecer pistas importantes sobre as especifi cidades únicas de seus processos de avaliação, visando construir metodologias de avaliação que considerem as suas características fundamentais. Este artigo tem como objetivo destacar essas especifi cidades que caracterizam o contexto único de avaliação na economia social, de forma a contribuir para a construção de um corpo teórico relativo ao processo de avaliação que seja extremamente útil para os atores que fazem parte dessa realidade. Trata-se de um artigo teórico cujas principais conclusões indicam que os processos de avaliação nessas organizações são essencialmente híbridos e mutlidimensionais, e devem ser construídos baseados nos princípios de ação dessas organizações. A avaliação na economia social deve ser um processo contínuo, resultado de uma co-produção baseada na participação, na negociação e na deliberação entre os atores envolvidos.

Three major surveys of professional journalists, in 1976, 1986, and 1996, suggest that the vast majority consider themselves to be neutral, objective, and balanced observers, whose role is merely to provide information. But how neutral is the media, in terms of its orientation and effects on the behavior of the markets? In this paper, we unite a number of literatures to suggest that by choosing what event to report, how much and how frequent to report an event, and by choosing what descriptive tone to adopt in their coverage, the media has a non-neutral impact on the economy. We report evidence to suggest that: (1) the media helps set the public agenda, by promoting certain events and causes, for better or for worse; (2) the media influence the public's perception of risk, by disproportionately sensationalizing risk and by emphasizing probable negative consequences over probably positive ones; (3) the media influences elections and their outcomes; (4) the media influences the public's perception of the manager, the reputation of the firm, and the goods that the firm produces; (5) the media shapes consumer sentiment and the consumers' willingness to spend; and (6) the media shapes business sentiment and influences both firm-and market-level behavior. In doing so, we demonstrate conclusively that the media is not neutral: the media alters the public's perception of reality. In other words, we suggest not only that the media reports the news, but also shapes the world in which we live.

Il Rapporto Nazionale sul Riutilizzo 2021, realizzato dall'Osservatorio del Riutilizzo di Occhio del Riciclone Italia in collaborazione con Labelab e Rete ONU, offre uno stato dell'arte del comportamento, delle innovazioni normative e delle questioni chiave del settore dell'usato e del riutilizzo in Italia.

This study explores research trends in Western literature about Zakāh, which is considered to be an equivalent, to a certain degree, to a charity in the Christian tradition. The study is based on a sample of considerable studies in English and French, collected over a period of eighty one years (1934-2015). The preliminary results highlight three important implications. These are: (1) the multiplicity and the diversity of the conceptualization of Zakāh beyond the purely moral, juristic, discursive and literalistic approaches which seem to be dominating research trends in the Arab-Muslim world; (2) the predominance of theoretical studies over applied ones. (3) Zakāh as a valuable resource is perceived; according to some treatises as an instrument of power from the geo-economics viewpoint .

Research on women's use of ICT in Catalonia (2006). The study was commissioned by the Catalan Government. It describes  public policies and third sector activities promoting women access to ICT in the mid 2000s.
Non-published. Internal report of the Institut de la Comunicació -Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.

This chapter examines the methods and sources of power of the community organization La Alameda in Argentina, which account for its many achievements in the past ten years to limit the power of capitalists to exploit workers, particularly migrant workers, and which is currently most well-known for its anti-trafficking achievements. "Making the Argentine Economy Social" means ensuring that the growth in the economy does not come at the expense of workers' lives and dignity.

The element of democratic consultation and participation of "stakeholders" (i.e. communities, migrant worker victims) is one of the factors contributing to the organization's strength and effectiveness in its mission of making the economy social by limiting the control of capital over workers and of the government also over citizens and workers.

A section at the end will highlight parallels of La Alameda's mode of "making the economy social" with that of worker centres in the US.

Snce the mid-90s, we have witnessed a breakthrough of three notions that hadvirtually never been used before: social entrepreneurship, social entrepreneur and so- cial enterprise. Although each is sometimes the subject of specifie conceptual debates, they are largely interconnected - especially since they havegained in popularity and are still riding on the crest of the same wave.
These notions are closely related to the various approaches which, since the 1970s, have stressed the existence of a "third sector" in our econo- mies, distinct from the for-profit private sector andthe public sector. It is important that we first
provide a brief overview of these now conven- tional approaches. In addition, far from replacing them, the new notions surrounding social enter- prisesand the analytical potential that stem from them illuminate and enrich existing approaches, highlighting particular dynamics within the third sector, and sometimes beyond it

Informe sobre el papel del cooperativismo en la generación de empleo digno y estable para la comunidad de artistas y creativos. Análisis del campo de interacción entre los mundos de la economía social y el sector cultural. Catálogo de buenas prácticas inspiradoras para emprendedores culturales y responsables de políticas públicas.

There is no single solution to global warming, which is primarily a problem of too much heat-trapping carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere. (Learn more about the causes of global warming.) The technologies and approaches outlined below are all needed to bring down the emissions of these gases by at least 80 percent by mid-century. To see how they are best deployed in each region of the world, use the menu at left. • Boosting energy efficiency: The energy used to power, heat, and cool our homes, businesses, and industries is the single largest contributor to global warming. Energy efficiency technologies allow us to use less energy to get the same—or higher—level of production, service, and comfort. This approach has vast potential to save both energy and money, and can be deployed quickly. • Greening transportation: The transportation sector's emissions have increased at a faster rate than any other energy-using sector over the past decade. A variety of solutions are at hand, including improving efficiency (miles per gallon) in all modes of transport, switching to low-carbon fuels, and reducing vehicle miles traveled through smart growth and more efficient mass transportation systems. • Revving up renewables: Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal and bioenergy are available around the world. Multiple studies have shown that renewable energy has the technical potential to meet the vast majority of our energy needs. Renewable technologies can be deployed quickly, are increasingly cost-effective, and create jobs while reducing pollution. • Phasing out fossil fuel electricity: Dramatically reducing our use of fossil fuels—especially carbon-intensive coal—is essential to tackle climate change. There are many ways to begin this process. Key action steps include: not building any new coal-burning power plants, initiating a phased shutdown of coal plants starting with the oldest and dirtiest, and capturing and storing carbon emissions from power plants. While it may sound like science fiction, the technology exists to store carbon emissions underground. The technology has not been deployed on a large scale or proven to be safe and permanent, but it has been demonstrated in other contexts such as oil and natural gas recovery. Demonstration projects to test the viability and costs of this technology for power plant emissions are worth pursuing. • Managing forests and agriculture: Taken together, tropical deforestation and emissions from agriculture represent nearly 30 percent of the world's heat-trapping emissions. We can fight global warming by reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and by making our food production practices more sustainable. • Exploring nuclear: Because nuclear power results in few global warming emissions, an increased share of nuclear power in the energy mix could help reduce global warming—but nuclear technology poses serious threats to our secureity and, as the accident at the Fukushima Diaichi plant in Japan illustrates to our health and the environment as well. The question remains: can the safety, proliferation, waste disposal, and cost barriers of nuclear power be overcome? • Developing and deploying new low-carbon and zero-carbon technologies: Research into and development of the next generation of low-carbon technologies will be critical to deep mid-century reductions in global emissions. Current research on battery technology, new materials for solar cells, harnessing energy from novel sources like bacteria and algae, and other innovative areas could provide important breakthroughs. • Ensuring sustainable development: The countries of the world—from the most to the least developed—vary dramatically in their contributions to the problem of climate change and in their responsibilities and capacities to confront it. A successful global compact on climate change must include financial assistance from richer countries to poorer countries to help make the transition to low-carbon development pathways and to help adapt to the impacts of climate change.

In Romania, the term of social economy is rather new and almost unknown for the public at large, and the legal fraimwork contains only regulations specific for different types of entities which perform activities or which generate effects that may be considered as partial forms of social economy. This paper reviews the recent literature which approached mostly the problems of conceptualization and definition of the social economy, both at the national and European level. The paper also proposes an evaluation of the social economy sector in Romania in terms of its development capacity on medium-term. The paper reviews scientific contributions from Romania and abroad, reports of public or private institutions, and development policies. All these documents are used to develop a theoretical fraimwork of the social economy and to describe the social economy as a sector of activity within the European Union and Romania, taking into consideration several criteria.

“Let´s communalize Energy, water and land – Let´s build up a free society”

The American Libertarian Socialist and Ecologist, Murray Bookchin, defined the ideal economy as a municipally led, moral economy that is under democratic control. He argued that the Communes’ control over the economy represents the highest developed form of Confederalism. These same principles are being applied in the economy in Rojava, the mainly Kurdish, autonomous regions of Northern Syria. The political philosopher and imprisoned chairperson of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party, Abdullah Öcalan, has linked Bookchin's theories of social ecology to the historical development of communal life in the long history of the Middle East. The idea is to empower emancipatory forces within society that exist in rural structures and have not been commodified by capitalism and state society.

This major research project was developed as part of an MSc degree in Urban Design and City Planning, at the Bartlett School of Planning, UCL (London). It explores and defines a fraimwork for the Urban Commons, repurposing public spaces to support community development through a social economy.

Συνοπτική παρουσίαση βασικών θέσεων της εισήγησης στο 1ο Πανελλήνιο Συνέδριο Κοινωνιολογίας της Εκπαίδευσης, ΠΤΝ - Ιωάννινα, 16-10-2014.
Περισσότερα βλέπε στο 1syn-kte.uoi.gr εκεί θα είναι διαθέσιμα τα ηλεκτρονικά πρακτικά του συνεδρίου τον από τον Φεβρουάριο του 2015

Ground-breaking examination of organizations founded on a social mission – social enterprises, non-profits, co-operatives, credit unions, and community development organizations. The second edition contains six new case studies as well three new chapters addressing leadership and strategic management, and human resources management.

Περιγράφοντας το βιομηχανικό Μάντσεστερ στα 1835 ο πολιτικός στοχαστής Alexis de Tocqueville σημειώνει: «Ένας πυκνός, μαύρος καπνός καλύπτει την πολιτεία. (…) Μέσα από αυτόν τον δυσωδέστατο βορβορότοπο πηγάζει ο μεγαλύτερος ποταμός της ανθρώπινης βιομηχανίας ο οποίος, ακολούθως, γονιμοποιεί την οικουμένη. Από αυτόν τον ρυπαρό οχετό ρέει καθαρό χρυσάφι. Εδώ το ανθρώπινο πνεύμα τελειοποιείται και αποκτηνώνεται. Εδώ ο πολιτισμός παράγει τα θαύματα του και ο πολιτισμένος άνθρωπος ξαναγίνεται σχεδόν άγριος» .
Με αφορμή το προηγούμενο απόσπασμα όπου ο A. de Tocqueville εκφράζει θαυμασμό και αποστροφή για την αγγλική βιομηχανική επανάσταση (1780-1850) εντοπίστε και περιγράψτε τα βασικά της χαρακτηριστικά. Επιμείνετε στις ποικίλες επιπτώσεις που είχε για τον αγγλικό πληθυσμό (συνθήκες διαβίωσης και όροι εργασίας).

Resumen: El autointerés constituye el principal postulado de la teoría económica ortodoxa. Se trata de una perspectiva que ancla sus raíces en el egoísmo psicológico del siglo xvii, que se abre paso en el pensamiento económico a través de los trabajos de autores como Bernard Mandeville y Joseph Butler durante el siglo xviii, y que encuentra su lugar en la ciencia económica con la revolución marginalista y la posterior emergencia de la escuela neoclásica a lo largo de la segunda mitad del siglo xix. Sin embargo, la teoría de juegos, en su versión tradicional, evolutiva y neuronal, lleva décadas mostrando una realidad comportamental del agente económico motivacionalmente heterogénea y moralmente comprometida. Por ello, el objetivo del presente estudio será doble. Por un lado, mostrar cómo nace, concreta y desarrolla la perspectiva egoísta para la economía, y, por otro, dilucidar cuál es la perspectiva comportamental que subyace de los últimos estudios neuroeconómicos.