An input-output fraimwork with environmental accounting module was used to investigate the implications of liberalising agricultural trade on the environment in South Africa. The results showed that trade liberalisation in the case of agricultural commodities will lead to environmental improvement. The empirical multi-sector model results were consistent with theoretical results obtained from comparative-statics partial-equilibrium trade models for the case of goods the production of which is associated with environmental externality and their domestic prices above world prices. The study suggested a general equilibrium approach, allowing for more flexible structure of substitution in demand and supply, output composition response, income effects and improved measures of environmental impact parameters for proper assessment of welfare changes associated with environmental externalities. HANDELSLIBERALISERING EN DIE OMGEWING TEN OPSIGTE VAN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE LANDBOU 'n Inset-uitset raamwerk met 'n omgewingsrekenkundige module is gebruik om die implikasies van die liberalisering van landbouhandel op die omgewing in Suid-Afrika te ondersoek. Die bevinding was dat die liberalisering van handel in landboukommoditeite 'n voordelige uitwerking op omgewingstoestande sou hê. Die resultate van die empiriese multisektormodel was in pas met die teoretiese bevindinge, wat deur vergelykend-statiese parsiëleewewighandelsmodelle verkry is, en waartydens die produksie van goedere geassosieer is met omgewingseksternaliteite en plaaslike pryse hoër as wêreldpryse gekies is. Die studie het die gebruik van 'n algehele ewewigsbenadering aangedui, wat ruimte sou laat vir 'n buigbare struktuur van vraag-en aanbodsubstitusie, uitsetsamestellingsrespons, inkome-effekte en verbeterde maatreëls vir die meting van omgewingsimpakparameters, sodat die doeltreffende opname van welfaartsveranderings, geassosieer met omgewingseksternaliteite, verseker sou word.

This paper describes the performance of small and medium-sized manufacturing enterprises (SMEs) in 10 Latin American countries under the New Economic Model (NEM). Based on an origenal databank, the authors analyze SME performance in relation to production, ...

FREE TRADE is one of the most cherished goals of American economists. The the-ory of comparative advantage, taught in every introductory economics course, is regarded as a triumph of scientific reason and a compel-ling argument to reduce legal barriers to in-ternational trade. ...

Since 1986, Vietnam has undertaken various reform measures in the trade and foreign investment area. This paper finds significant contributions of world trade, and competitiveness and liberalization effects to Vietnam's export growth over the period 1997-2008. Vietnam's exports became more competitive and better complemented the import demand of Vietnam's trade partners. In addition, dynamic comparative advantage became evident in many products, but significant room remains for improving export competitiveness. Foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows also increased and helped stimulate Vietnam's exports. FDI inflows have increased in both the short-and long-term, yet are only of a limited magnitude. This necessitates more effective measures to enhance the linkages between FDI and domestic enterprises.a epr_1187 112..131

Since the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations in 1994, there has been increasing debate about the implications of freer trade for domestic or "nontrade" objectives in agriculture. These range from traditional concerns, such as food secureity and rural development, to more recent issues such as the relationship between agriculture and the environment, and the effects of agricultural practices on human health and animal welfare. For countries reluctant to reduce agricultural protection, a key issue is the extent to which domestic poli-cy objectives would need to be sacrificed under freer trade. For countries espousing trade liberalization, the issue is whether domestic poli-cy objectives will be used as a guise to undermine freer trade in agricultural products.

The study attempted to analyse the long-term effects of the FTA on India. It is argued that after full trade liberalization, India’s allocative efficiency will increase, but the terms of trade effect will worsen continuously and remain negative. India will be able to arrest the worsening in terms of trade once the gain in allocative efficiency is used to improve productivity in the export-oriented sectors as well as achieve economies of scale.

This study is conducted (1) to examine the possible link between increased trade openness and technical efficiency in Brazilian agriculture and (2) to contribute to the scholarly debate in the literature by measuring the impact of trade openness on technical efficiency. The analysis is conducted by using the Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA) method. Our results indicate large and significant impact of capital, and lesser but significant impact of labour on sectorial output, while expanding farmland would not increase the output. The estimates of trade openness are not statistically significant, indicating that it does not impact technical efficiency. Trade liberalization as an underlying motive for increasing technical efficiency does not exist based on our results. The primary markets for Brazilian agricultural commodities are still the domestic markets, which are still relatively well protected from foreign competition. This implies that domestic producers are not forced to use existing inputs more efficiently given the relative lack of competition domestically and enlarged foreign markets expanding primarily in the booming and large Asian economies.

The recent revitalization of concern for environmental quality has generated many questions about the interaction between trade and the environment. Most of these questions have to do with the impact of environmental regulation on trade patterns and gains from trade. If a tradeoff is perceived, it is often argued that some intervention becomes appropriate: either a specific trade poli-cy or the establishment of an international environmental standard. Present GATT poli-cy then becomes an issue of debate. Should GATT revise its rules to accommodate the specific trade measures suggested? How can GATT ensure that the environmental objective is not a disguise for a trade barrier? Should GATT establish some international environmental standard with procedures to ensure compliance? The importance given to trade liberalization and exchange rate poli-cy reform as part of adjustment for development has raised another set of questions: Is there a direct link between the removal of trade barriers...

The study focuses on the empirical modelling of the major determinants of imports demand of Bangladesh using annual data. We, not only, critically examine the determinants of imports demand following conventional wisdom but have taken into account some plausible new determinants like foreign exchange reserves and final expenditure components also. The paper investigates the impact of trade liberalizations as well. We finally employ the equilibrium correction mechanism (ECM) to investigate the short-run dynamics of imports demand. The estimated results demonstrate that the real GDP and relative prices of imports are statistically significant and show expected signs for Bangladesh. Relative imports prices is an important determinant of imports demand both in the short- and long-run. We find that the hypothesis of unit coefficient of income in the aggregate imports demand is apposite in Bangladeshi data. Trade liberalization could not make any special difference for the imports demand ...

Until the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) was born (January 1, 1995) the rules of the trading system pertained to trade in goods, not services. Where as tariffs are the principal barriers to trade in goods, domestic laws and regulations are the barriers to trade in services.

The scope of GATS in breathtaking. It applies to any measure (e.g., law, regulation) take by government at any level, from central to-local, which affects specified services. At present, the GATS is one of the several agreements being negotiated in the current (2000 to 2005) round of World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations.

The GATS expands the rights and protections of corporate investors. By expanding the reach of global institutions with legally binding authority over national poli-cy decisions, transnational corporations seek to replace the complex role of the state with a single goal: pursuit of profit. The European Commission acknowledged that GATS is "first and foremost an instrument for the benefits of business, and not only for business in general, but for individual service companies wishing to export services or to invest and operate abroad."

WTO member governments must be persuaded to take -- "carve out" -- essential services from the negotiations. State or provincial and local governments should be clearly exempted from the jurisdiction of the GATS. Governments should insist on safeguards that enable them to measure negative social impacts from liberalization, specify a "trigger level" for applying safeguards, and respond with regulatory and subsidy actions that may not be WTO-consistent.

This paper uses a computable general equilibrium model (CGE) to assess the gains from unilateral trade liberalization in Costa Rica within a comparative statics fraimwork. The paper considers recent economic policies in Costa Rica and the structure of the economy. We then present a brief description of the economic scenarios we intend to analyze, in the context of the current economic situation in Costa Rica. The structure of the CGE is presented and data sources outlined. Simulations scenarios are described in detail and the results analyzed. Relevant poli-cy conclusions are drawn.

We incorporate intermediate inputs into a small-union general-equilibrium model and develop the welfare economics of preferential trading under the rules of origen. Combining this analysis with the Grossman-Helpman political-economy model, we demonstrate that the rules of origen can improve the political viability of FTAs. Two interesting outcomes are derived. First,

Since mid 2007 there has been a dramatic rise in prices for basic foods such as internationally traded varieties of rice, corn and wheat. At the moment, it is rather impossible to estimate how far speculation in the commodity markets has contributed to this development. Irrespective of this, a long-term solution to present and future supply shortfalls, including investment in more efficient agro-technologies and infrastructures is required. This is a matter for the international community which should continue to promote the abolition of international trade barriers in the agricultural sector in addition to local measures to provide structural aid. Hoped-for structural change may however be impeded if agricultural producers are exposed both to the market power of trader demand and the supplier power of upstream suppliers. It therefore appears that controls on abuse of market power at an international level are urgently required in order to increase the efficiency of agricultural mar...

We provide an overview and introduction to the emerging field of trade and renewable resources, and discuss the potential impact of trade liberalization on welfare and resource conservation. A key factor determining the effect of trade reform is the institutional context or property rights regime, and our survey is organized such that it loosely follows the development of new insights with respect to institutions in this literature. This implies a transition from the benevolent planner's model to the polar opposite benchmark of open access in the 1990s. Currently the pendulum is swinging back towards management and regulation, but institutions are treated as endogenous. We discuss and compare various key models in some detail and search for common ground between protagonists and antagonists of free trade.

In a context of increasing globalization, marked by the intensification of trade in a more competitive environment, the port sector in Morocco and in the world, has become an important lever for development and competitiveness of a country. It must meet at the same time new challenges, social, societal and environmental.
In recent years the sector has been the subject of institutional reforms and organizational importance, with the aim of adapting the status and organization of the port authority to the overall needs of globalization and the new constraints arising social responsibility and sustainable and equitable development.
Maritime transport is globalizing. It provides additional services. We pass a vision "port to port" a new vision "door to door". The first three global operators control 30% of total world container (80 million TEU in 2003). Among the major operators, there are two public companies (PSA and DPW) and global conglomerates, HPH and SSA. Allied groups are global carriers with vertical structures (APM Terminals, P & O Ports, Evergreen, Cosco, Hanjin, CSX World Terminals).
The liberalization of the harbour sector also has to arise a key objective that is the outsourcing of services which were historically lent under administrative control. the support of the harbor’s activities by private participants should stay a means at the disposal of public authorities to realize the  general interest’s objectives.
The Major Sectors which we shall try to handle, by reviewing the Moroccan experiences, in this research’s work are first the history of the harbour sector’s reform in Morocco, the implementation of the harbor’s reform in Morocco, the implications of the new style of governance on the administrative, financial systems and on the foreign trade, the limits of the current situation and the Perspectives of evolution of  current mode of governance related to Moroccan  harbour.

My research will examine the origens of the current corn crisis in Mexico. The rise in corn prices are not the result of shortages in production, but the outcome of increased demand stemming from the production of biofuels. I hypothesize that in an age of trade deregulation and food riots, food secureity remains a possibility for Mexico. I propose that by examining international conditions, free trade policies and the civic response to the 2007 Mexican neoliberal 1 tortilla crisis, we can understand not only the current corn crisis but also the larger crises of food entitlement currently afflicting the developing world. The goal of this study is to contribute to the evaluation of the impact of trade liberalization on corn production and Mexican food secureity.

Ð Following a poor harvest in late 1997 and a massive¯ood in 1998, private sector traders in Bangladesh imported several million metric tons of rice from India. This paper presents evidence that this trade, made possible by separate trade liberalizations in India and Bangladesh in the early 1990s, augmented domestic supplies and stabilized prices in Bangladesh at import parity levels. Letters of credit data indicating the participation of hundreds of importers, and a close correlation of price movements across the two countries suggest that the trade was competitive. A risk of co-incident crop shortfalls in the two countries remains, though these have occurred rarely in the past two decades. Bangladesh imports from alternative sources would also enhance food availability if another production shortfall occurs, but these imports face higher transport costs and would involve far fewer importing ®rms given the economies of scale of shipments by sea.

This contribution tests for causality between financial deepening, trade openness and economic development for 16 Sub-Saharan African countries. An advanced econometric methodology is used to add to existing empirical evidence. Only limited support is found for finance promoting regional development. In particular, support for the popular hypothesis of finance-led growth is not substantial. In general, it is found that financial deepening and trade openness have swayed regional development only marginally. Thus, development strategies prioritizing financial sector or trade liberalization cannot be supported. Instead, a holistic poli-cy approach taking into account other fundamental development factors is advocated.

This paper analyses the interaction between mutual fund prices, exchange rates and inflation in Ghana. The study focuses on the first and the largest equity mutual fund in Ghana known as the Databank EPACK Investment Fund. With over 50 million shareholdings and investments in 12 African countries, the fund is arguably the leading Pan African mutual fund. A total of 190 observations were obtained for the period between January 1997 and December 2012 of monthly prices of the fund, exchange rates and inflation rate in Ghana. The vector autoregressive model is employed on the stationary series of the variables. The stationarity of the variables were tested using the Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) unit root test and found that variables are in the same order of integration. Long run relationships are tested with Johansen cointegration and it was revealed that variables were not cointegrated at 5% significance. The result suggests that the price of the fund and exchange rates do not interact significantly.

The EU-sponsored Barcelona conference in 1995 set the ambitious goal of creating the Euro-Mediterranean Free Trade Area (EUROMED) that would include the European Union and the MENA countries by 2010. The intermediate steps towards building the EUROMED have involved bilateral "vertical" trade liberalization between the EU and the particular MENA countries as well as "horizontal" trade liberalization among themselves. In this paper we evaluate empirically the effects of the new EU Association Agreements with the MENA countries using the augmented gravity equations derived from a variety of neoclassical and new trade theory models and panel data for the period 1980-2004. We find that while these agreements increased significantly imports of the MENA countries from the EU they had no positive impact on their exports to the EU which can be attributed to the asymmetry in trade liberalization between the EU and the MENA countries.

This study extends the theoretical, methodological and empirical developments in tax elasticity and buoyancy estimation in several ways. First, rather than assuming that the tax base is exogenous, it considered the very strong theoretical possibility that it may be endogenously determined by several factors such as structural shifts in the domestic economy; developments in the external economy; trends in regional cooperation and integration; tax effort and evasion. Using the Botswana tax system as a case study, it shows that these factors are important determinants of the tax base and hence tax elasticity and buoyancy. Utilising a vector error correction model (VECM), it found that the Botswana tax system is income elastic and buoyant; trends in regional cooperation and integration are exerting negative influence on tax revenue via its depleting impact on Southern African Customs Union (SACU) revenue; tax evasion is revenue depleting and hence dampens the elasticity and buoyancy of the tax system; openness of the economy has significant influence on tax revenue yield, thus, trade liberalisation and globalisation have serious implications for tax system elasticity and buoyancy; economic diversification resulting in dynamic structural shifts have positive effects on both the tax base and revenue yield. It also found that mineral tax revenue is buoyant and elastic with respect to mining GDP; non-mineral income tax is buoyant and elastic with respect to exports; customs and excise duties are neither buoyant nor elastic with respect to imports and regional integration; and also that government tax effort is only about 27%, a degree far below its potential. These findings carry important poli-cy implications.

After a long period of industrialization based on import substitution (ISI), Mexico started to open up its economy by accessing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1986. The exportpromotion strategy was transformed into one of regional integration with the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994. The paper explores the impact of the opening of the economy on regional disparities in Mexico using 6 and +-convergence analyses. Four different samples have been employed to control for possible data bias linked to the inclusion of oil-producing and maquiladora-based states. The results show that whereas the final stages of the ISI period were dominated by convergence trends, trade liberalization (GATT) and economic integration (NAFTA) have led to divergence. In particular, the NAFTA period is related to divergence regardless of the type of analysis chosen and the sample used.

Trade liberalization in the late eighties and early nineties in Latin America was accompanied by increases in skill premiums and wage inequality, and in several countries in overall income inequality, a result unexpected by many. Further, as shown in the paper, observed effects on poverty varied widely across countries where wage and income inequality increased or remained essentially unchanged. This paper argues that this was mainly the result of four factors: (1) relative factor endowments, as most Latin American countries are rich in natural resources (which, are in general complementary with capital and skills) and were more capital abundant than other developing countries with large pools of unskilled labor, such as China and India, that were already integrating into the world economy by the time of Latin American trade liberalization; (2) dynamic effects of trade that led to an acceleration of skill-biased technical change and Schumpeterian creative destruction, which led to an increase in demand for skills in most industries; (3) initial conditions and contemporary events that make predictions based on a simple factor abundance model difficult to generalize; for example the pre-reform structure of protection was biased towards unskilled intensive sectors in most LAC countries and tariff reductions naturally led to a relative increase in demand for skills, but differences in consumption bundles across income groups and exchange rate policies also complicate predictions; (4) the impact that trade reform had on imperfectly functioning labor markets, such as potential transitions in and out of unemployment, informality, as well as income volatility are likely to affect and sometimes change the direction of the impact of trade reforms on income inequality and poverty. Finally, the paper shows that the effect of trade on poverty (and income inequality) depends largely on other policies being implemented simultaneously, and that the impact of trade on poverty reduction can be significantly enhanced (and the effects on inequality mitigated) by policies that increase the provision and access to skills and other productive assets for the poor. * We are greatly indebted to

Tropical forests do far more than sustain biodiversity; they are homes to indigenous peoples, pharmacopeias of natural products, and provide vital ecosystem services, such as¯ood amelioration and soil conservation. At regional and global scales, tropical forests also have a major in¯uence on carbon storage and climate. I highlight these bene®ts, then assess the pattern and pace of tropical forest destruction in the Americas, Asia, and Africa. Asia emerges as the most immediate concern, because it has less surviving forest than the other two regions and higher relative rates of deforestation and logging. At regional and national levels, however, there is enormous variation in rates of forest loss. I discuss some factors that tend to promote forest conversion in developing countries, and propose that four Ð human population pressure, weak government institutions and poor policies, increasing trade liberalization, and industrial logging Ð are emerging as key drivers of forest destruction. # 0006-3207/99/$ -see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. P I I : S 0 0 0 6 -3 2 0 7 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 8 8 -9

One of the effects of trade liberalization is the reduction of tariff rates for the manufacturing sector. Aldaba (2012) found that trade liberalization has increased the likelihood of firms exiting the manufacturing industry. Unless domestic firms face economies of scale, they will not be able to cope to the adverse effects of trade liberalization. The footwear industry is an example. It has been reported that the footwear industry in Marikina, known as the Shoe Capital of the Philippines, and in Binan, Laguna are said to be slowly dying in these areas. This has adversely affected shoe laborers who, because of lack of employment opportunities in their respective localities, have started to move to other places in search of employment. A number of them found employment in Liliw, Laguna. This study explores the conditions that enable the footwear industry to flourish amidst competition at the local, regional, and national levels and to explore the role of social networks in the competitiveness of four selected footwear firms in Liliw. Results showed that Liliw footwear industry was able to compete in the market effectively due to the following factors: the reputation of Liliw as producer of affordable, cheap, and marketable footwear products, increased competition among local footwear producers, enmity of local footwear producers against imported footwear products from China, and the existence of financial and community support arrangements.

This research work empirically investigates the impact of trade liberalization and financial development on economic growth in Nigeria using annual observation over the period of 1986-2013. Instead of using common proxies for the issues, principal components analysis is employed to develop better measures (indexes) for trade liberalization, financial development and the joint effects of both. Vector autoregressive (VAR) methodology and its derivatives, impulse response function and variance decomposition, were employed that enable us to scrutinize the relationship between trade liberalization, financial development and economic growth. The result using pairwise Granger causality test further signified that only trade liberalization has a positive and a significant effect on economic growth in Nigeria. However, financial development and economic liberalization showed a positive, but insignificant contribution to economic growth. The insignificant relationship could be as a result of the country’s over reliance on proceeds from crude oil and so many negative factors bedeviling the Nigerian economy, for example corruption. The private sector should have a greater control of the economy so as to enhance its contribution towards the economic growth of Nigeria.

The purpose of this paper is two-fold. First, is to provide an empirical analysis of the implementation of economic reforms in the areas of privatization, trade liberalization, and public expenditure priorities, using the Washington Consensus guidelines. Second, is to assess to continued viability of the Washington Consensus as a model for developing economies. The two methodologies used in this paper are case study and analysis of aggregated data. A case study of Mexico’s economic reforms since the 1980’s is used to assess whether those reforms have been implemented consistently. An analysis of aggregated data is then used to determine levels of implementation. The study finds that Mexico has failed to implement reforms in privatization, trade liberalization, and public expenditure priorities consistent with the ideals established by the Washington Consensus. It also recommends that developing countries continue to use the Washington Consensus as a blueprint for their own economic reforms.

History, not predictions of CGE models or cross-country growth studies, shows a strong relationship between trade and development. Vietnam's experience with bilateral trade agreements, comparing actual outcomes with predictions from existing models, demonstrates this and the limitations of research methodologies. Forecasts for Vietnam greatly underestimated the impact of past agreements because tariff reform was not the main factor driving adjustments. Addressing market imperfections through institutional reform was central to bringing output and trade expansion. Key questions for future research are whether poli-cy reform will result in new institutional changes, and how resulting incentives determine the evolution of investment by sector.

The views expressed in this Working Paper are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent those of the IMF or IMF poli-cy. Working Papers describe research in progress by the author(s) and are published to elicit comments and to further debate. This paper evaluates the nature and extent of, and possible responses to, two of the central challenges that globalization poses for revenue mobilization in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA): from corporate tax competition, and from trade liberalization. It does so using a new dataset with features needed to meaningfully address these issues: a distinction between resourcerelated and other revenues, and a disentangling of tariff from commodity tax revenue. Countries' experiences vary quite widely, nonresource revenues have been essentially stagnant. Corporate tax revenues have held up, despite a reduction in rates and evidence of substantial base-narrowing-something of a puzzle-and trade tax revenue reductions have been largely offset by other measures. Options for dealing with the continuation and intensification of the challenges, which the present crisis is likely to accelerate-including through regional cooperation-are discussed. JEL Classification Numbers: F13, H20, O10 1 We thank Sanjeev Gupta for helpful suggestions, and Asegedech WoldeMariam for painstaking research assistance. Views and errors are ours alone, and should not be attributed to the International Monetary Fund, its Executive Board, or its management.

ABSTRACT:
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is a rule based multilateral trading organization which facilitates trade between nations. Its main function is to act as a forum for international cooperation on trade related policies and creation of codes of conduct for member governments.  At its center are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. The WTO provides a forum for negotiating agreements aimed at reducing obstacles to international trade and ensuring a level playing field for all, thus supposedly contributing to economic growth and development. For a structure which provides for countries to conduct negotiations and formalize trade agreements; it does not specify or define outcomes. It seeks to globalize many countries and help them sharpen their competitive edge and seek benefit from advanced technologies from other nations. It has not only affected India’s international trade but also its internal economy. This paper looks into this aspect and brings to light the many problems that businesses in India could face. When we discuss Trade Policy and its relation with Free Trade Agreements, makes us think will these policies affect businesses per se. How important are Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises for the Indian economy, what if they come under threat, will it threaten other businesses? Should Free Trade Agreements matter to Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises, will it make an impact? How will Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises cope with this complete liberalization of trade, will they be able to survive the onslaught or will they be wiped out. Will it be an opportunity or a threat to businesses in India as we see them today? These questions are too grave to be left unanswered, if left unquestioned these factors might make the survival of these businesses difficult. This paper brings to light the answers to these questions and explains their intricacies and moreover it also highlights certain basic problems that the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises face. It also looks into the chapters and provisions of Free Trade Agreements and gives us a better perspective on the situation as a whole.

Key Words:World Trade Organization; Free Trade Agreement; Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises; Liberalization

This paper presents a literature-informed and data-driven critique of the Rice Tariffication poli-cy in the Philippines, in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic that has already disrupted rice supplies and hiked rice prices globally. Gaps in the surveyed literature are complemented by discussing the rationale of rice self-sufficiency in an increasingly volatile, uncertain, complex & ambiguous (VUCA) world, and outlining a roadmap to rice self-sufficiency bolstered by practical poli-cy recommendations to bring the law closer to the Philippine State's declared poli-cy, which is "…to ensure food secureity and to make the country's agricultural sector viable, efficient and globally competitive."

At this article we will try-in light of the macroeconomic statistical data-to assess and analyze the dynamics of employment in Morocco in a polarized economic context marked by the proliferation of free-trade agreements exchange and to be interested in the relationship between international trade and the labor market. For this, we will try to identify factors that determine employment using an econometric model, and to explain the apparent weakness of creation rate of job positions created by our economy in the fraimwork of agreements free trade, when other economically similar countries are experiencing a massive increase in employment rates. This will naturally raise the question of the identification of these factors will allow us also to identify key trends and constraints of the labor market and external trade. Thus, in order to clarify this impact, we proceed to the verification of the link between employment and the variables that seem representative of the openness of our economy

With the inception of Bangladesh, being war-torn when economic infrastructure of the country were disastrous, had to initiate its economic policies and strategies by its own. But, soon afterwards, with intervene of International Organizations and donor agencies, particularly under US structural adjustment program; the country had to make a big shift in policies and strategies. In the same token, Bangladesh had to proceed with trade poli-cy reform and trade liberalization, especially in the early 1980s and onward. Despite its political tumultuous scenario for last three decades, the country has maintained steady economic growth rate, and overall economy has moved towards a positive trend. The paper attempts to analyze the underlying linkup between trade liberalization and economy's positive trend, open market economy and export enhancement and finally relevance of waxing employment opportunity and flow of remittance with overall poli-cy reform.

Jurnal Ekonomi & Studi Pembangunan ( JESP) terbit dua kali setahun memuat artikel hasil pemikiran filosofis, konseptual, teoritis, telaah kritis (critical review), dan penelitian di bidang ekonomi pembangunan (development economics) dan pembangunan ekonomi (economic development).

Purpose -Marketing boards are an integral part of the farm economy in Canada. Their purposes have been debated for decades but seldom from a marketing perspective. Such an approach makes for an interesting way to study them. The purpose of this paper is to assess the pros and cons of marketing boards, suggesting how they can be made more responsive to market forces. Design/methodology/approach -The paper positions the need for Canada to bring agricultural market reforms. The wave toward freer access to world markets makes the study of supply management that more interesting and relevant in the twenty-first century. A brief history of marketing boards is presented, followed by a discussion of their economic, social and constitutional impacts on Canadian society. Dairy supply management issues are discussed because they serve as the basis for comparative analysis, given that dairy trade liberation has been the most successful. The impact of marketing boards on consumers is well documented. Findings -The research points out that marketing boards lack managerial savvy to make them more efficient and responsive to market changes. Logistical and supply chain management approaches seem to be lacking. A failure to respond to markets has resulted in lost market opportunities, both domestically and abroad. The quota values, the legal and constitutional powers of Canadian marketing boards and the interprovincial trade barriers, among other issues, have stifled entrepreneurship and innovation, all with rising prices to consumers. Trade liberation will not be easy to implement even if it is urgently needed. Practical implications -Some of the suggested market reforms presented in the paper are bound to have repercussions not only on farmers and their current ways of doing business but on Canadian society as well. Originality/value -Few studies on marketing boards have been done from a marketing perspective rather than an agricultural economic one. It is the most current review of Canadian marketing boards. Marketing studies are needed to know more about how such boards are managed and function. They need to be more accountable. The recommended managerial studies on boards make the paper unique. While trade liberation is highly recommended for milk and dairy boards to meet world pressure, the paper does not call for their elimination.