POWER FACTOR CORRECTION: A GUIDE FOR THE PLANT ENGINEER

CAPACITOR BANKS & PASSIVE HARMONIC FILTERS

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SA02607001E

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

Description Page PART ONE: POWER FACTOR What is Power Factor? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Should I Be Concerned About Low Power Factor? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 What Can I Do to Improve Power Factor? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 How Much Can I Save by Installing Power Capacitors?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 How Can I Select the Right Capacitors for My Specic Application Needs? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 How Much kvar Do I Need? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Where Should I Install Capacitors in My Plant Distribution System? . . . . . . 15 Can Capacitors Be Used in Non-Linear, Non-Sinusoidal Environments? . . . 17 What About Maintenance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Code Requirements for Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Useful Capacitor Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 PART TWO: HARMONICS Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 What are Harmonics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 What are the Consequences of High Harmonic Distortion Levels? . . . . . . . . 20 IEEE 519 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 How are Harmonics Generated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 What Do Power Factor Correction Capacitors Have to Do with Harmonics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 How Do I Diagnose a Potential Harmonics Related Problem? . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 How Can Harmonics Problems Be Eliminated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 What is a Passive Harmonic Filter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Do I Need to Perform a System Analysis to Correctly Apply Harmonic Filters?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 What is Eatons Experience in Harmonic Filtering? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

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PART ONE: POWER FACTOR What is Power Factor?

Special Electrical Requirement of Inductive Loads
Most loads in modern electrical distribution systems are inductive. Examples include motors, transformers, gaseous tube lighting ballasts and induction furnaces. Inductive loads need a magnetic eld to operate. Inductive loads require two kinds of current:

Fundamentals of Power Factor

Power factor is the ratio of working power to apparent power. It measures how effectively electrical power is being used. A high power factor signals efcient utilization of electrical power, while a low power factor indicates poor utilization of electrical power. To determine power factor (PF), divide working power (kW) by apparent power (kVA). In a linear or sinusoidal system, the result is also referred to as the cosine .
kW PF = ------------- = cosine kVA

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

Working power (kW) to perform the actual work of creating heat, light, motion, machine output, etc. Reactive power (kvar) to sustain the magnetic eld Working power consumes watts and can be read on a wattmeter. It is measured in kilowatts (kW). Reactive power doesnt perform useful work, but circulates between the generator and the load. It places a heavier drain on the power source, as well as on the power sources distribution system. Reactive power is measured in kilovolt-amperes-reactive (kvar). Working power and reactive power together make up apparent power. Apparent power is measured in kilovolt-amperes (kVA).

For example, if you had a boring mill that was operating at 100 kW and the apparent power consumed was 125 kVA, you would divide 100 by 125 and come up with a power factor of 0.80.
( kW )100 ------------------------------- = ( PF ) 0.80 ( kVA )125

Note: For a discussion on power factor in non-linear, non-sinusoidal systems, turn to Page 17.

Heat Component = Work Done G G Light Resistive Load Circulating Component = No Work

Figure 3. kVA Power

Hot Plate kVA kWCOS = ---------- = PF kVA kvar

Figure 1. kW Power

Motor Field

kW

Figure 4. Power Triangle

Note: A right power triangle is often used to illustrate the relationship between kW, kvar and kVA.

Figure 2. kvar Power

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Should I Be Concerned About Low Power Factor?

Low power factor means youre not fully utilizing the electrical power youre paying for. As the triangle relationships in Figure 5 demonstrate, kVA decreases as power factor increases. At 70% power factor, it requires 142 kVA to produce 100 kW. At 95% power factor, it requires only 105 kVA to produce 100 kW. Another way to look at it is that at 70% power factor, it takes 35% more current to do the same work.
142 kVA 100 kvar

100 kW 100 PF = -------- = 70% 142

105 kVA

33 kvar

100 kW 100 PF = -------- = 95% 105

Figure 5. Typical Power Triangles

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What Can I Do to Improve Power Factor?

You can improve power factor by adding power factor correction capacitors to your plant distribution system.
When apparent power (kVA) is greater than working power (kW), the utility must supply the excess reactive current plus the working current. Power capacitors act as reactive current generators. (See Figure 6.) By providing the reactive current, they reduce the total amount of current your system must draw from the utility.
18 Amperes M 10 hp, 480 V Motor at 84% Power Factor

16 Amperes

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

95% Power Factor Provides Maximum Benet

Theoretically, capacitors could provide 100% of needed reactive power. In practical usage, however, power factor correction to approximately 95% provides maximum benet. The power triangle in Figure 7 shows apparent power demands on a system before and after adding capacitors. By installing power capacitors and increasing power factor to 95%, apparent power is reduced from 142 kVA to 105 kVA a reduction of 35%.

3.6 Amperes Note: Current into motor does not change. 3 kvar Capacitor Power Factor Improved to 95% Line Current Reduced 11%

Figure 6. Capacitors as kvar Generators

COS 1 = 100 = 70% PF --------142 COS 2 = 100 = 95% PF --------105 re fo Be A kV 42 1

105 A kVA

70% PF Before
fter

67 kvar Capacitor Added 100 kvar Before

1 2

95% PF After

33 kvar After

Figure 7. Required Apparent Power Before and After Adding Capacitors

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How Much Can I Save by Installing Power Capacitors?

Power capacitors provide many benets: Reduced electric utility bills Increased system capacity Improved voltage Reduced losses

Case 2
Assume the same conditions except that: 400 kW @ 87% = 460 kVA 400 kW @ 97% = 412 kVA Corrected Billing kVA Demand Charge: $1.91/kVA/month (112,400 kWh/ month energy consumed). Energy Charge: $0.0286/kWh (rst 200 kWh/kVA of demand) $0.0243/kWh (next 300 kWh/kVA of demand) $0.021/kWh (all over 500 kWh/kVA of demand) Uncorrected: Corrected: 412 kVA $1.91 = $786.92 Demand: 460 kVA $1.91 = $878.60 $786.92 $ 91.68 Savings in Demand Charge Energy: kWh = 112,400 460 x 200 = 92,000 kWh @ 0.0286 = $2631.20 kWh = 112,400 412 x 200 = 82,400 kWh @ $0.0286 = $2356.64

Reduced Utility Bills

Your electric utility provides working (kW) and reactive power (kvar) to your plant in the form of apparent power (kVA). While reactive power (kvar) doesnt register on kW demand or kW hour meters, the utilitys transmission and distribution system must be large enough to provide the total power. Utilities have various ways of passing along the expense of larger generators, transformers, cables, switches, etc., to you. As shown in the following case histories, capacitors can save you money no matter how your utility bills you for power.

460 x 300 = 138,000 412 x 300 = 123,600 but balance only = 20,400 but balance only = 30,000 @ $0.0243 = $ 495.72 @ $0.0243 = $ 729.00 $2356.64 $2631.20 + $ 729.00 + $ 495.72 --------------------------------------------------------------$3126.92 Uncorrected $3085.64 Corrected Energy Charge Energy Charge $3085.64 ----------------------------$ 41.28 Saving in Energy Charge Due to Rate Charge (9600 kWh in rst step reduced by $0.0043) Note: This is not a reduction in energy consumed, but in billing only. Saving: $ 41.28 Energy + $ 91.68 Demand -------------------------------$ 132.96 Monthly Total Saving 12 ----------------------------$1595.52 A 130 kvar capacitor can be paid for in less than 14 months.

kVA Billing
The utility measures and bills every ampere of current, including reactive current.

Case 1
Assume an uncorrected 460 kVA demand, 480 volt, three-phase at 0.87 power factor (normally good). Billing: $4.75/kVA demand Solution: kVA Power Factor = kW 460 .87 = 400 kW Actual Demand Corrected 400kW = kVA ------------- = 412 Billing Demand ---------0.97 PF From Table 6 kW Multipliers, to raise the Power Factor from 0.87 to 0.97 requires capacitor: Multiplier of .316 x kW .316 x 400 = 126 kvar (use 140 kvar) Uncorrected Original Billing: 460 kVA $4.75 = $2185/mo. $1957 $ 228/mo. Saving 12 = $2736 Annual Saving Corrected New Billing: 412 kVA $4.75 = $1957/mo. 140 kvar, 480 volt capacitor cost: $1600 (installation extra). This capacitor pays for itself in less than eight months. Correct to 0.97 Power Factor

THE PRICES ABOVE ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.

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kW Demand Billing with Power Factor Adjustment

The utility charges according to the kW demand and adds a surcharge or adjustment for power factor. The adjustment may be a multiplier applied to kW demand. The following formula shows a billing based on 90% power factor:
kW Demand 0.90 ------------------------------------------------------------------Actual Power Factor

Case 2
With the same 400 kW load, the power factor is only 81%. In this example, the customer will pay an adjustment on: 400 0.90 = 444 Billing kW Demand --------------------------------0.81 (From Case 1. When the Power Factor = 96%, the billing demand is 375 kW = $3495.00 per month.) First 40 kW @ $10.00 = $ 400.00 Next 160 kW @ $ 9.50 = $ 1520.00 Next 244 kW @ $ 9.00 = $ 2196.00 Total 444 kW $ 4116.00 $3495.00 = $621.00 x 12 = $7452.00 Yearly savings if corrected to 96%.

If power factor was 0.84, the utility would require 7% increase in billing, as shown in this formula:
kW 0.90 = 107 (Multiplier) ------------------------------0.84

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

Some utilities charge for low power factor but give a credit or bonus for power above a certain level.

$4116.00 Charge at 81% $3720.00 Normal kW Demand Charge -------------------------------$ 395.00 Power Fac17tor Adjustment for 81% Power Factor To raise 81% power factor to 96%, select the multiplier from Table 6. 0.432 x 400 kW = 173 kvar. Use 180 kvar to ensure a 96% power factor. The cost of a 180 kvar capacitor is $1900.00, and the payoff is less than four months. 55 kvar would eliminate the penalty by correcting power factor to 85%.

Case 1
Assume a 400 kW load, 87% power factor with the following Utility tariff. A. Demand Charges: First 40 kW @ $10.00/kW monthly billing demand Next 160 kW @ $ 9.50/kW Next 800 kW @ $ 9.00/kW All over 1000 kW @ $ 8.50/kW B. Power Factor Clause: Rates based on power factor of 90% or higher. When power factor is less than 85%, the demand will be increased 1% for each 1% that the power factor is below 90%. If the power factor is higher than 95%, the demand will be decreased 1% for each 1% that the power factor is above 90%. Note: There would be no penalty for 87% power factor. However, a bonus could be credited if the power factor were raised to 96%. To raise an 87% power factor to 96%, refer to Table 6. Find 0.275 x 400 kW = 110 kvar (Select 120 kvar to ensure the maintenance of the 96% level). To Calculate savings: Normal 400 kW billing demand First 40 kW @ $10.00= $ 400.00 Next 160 kW @ $ 9.50 = $1520.00 Bal. 200 kW @ $ 9.00 = $1800.00 Total 400 kW $3720.00 Normal Monthly Billing New Billing: kW 0.90 ------------------------------------------------------------- = New Power Factor 400 0.90 --------------------------------- = 375 kW Demand 0.96 First 40 kW @ $10.00 = $ 400.00 Next 160 kW @ $ 9.50 = $1520.00 Bal. 175 kW @t $ 9.00 = $1575.00 $3495.00 Power Factor Adjusted Billing

THE PRICES ABOVE ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.

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kvar Reactive Demand Charge

The utility imposes a direct charge for the use of magnetizing power, usually a waiver of some percentage of kW demand. For example, if this charge was 60 cents per kvar for everything over 50% of kW, and a 400 kW load existed at the time, the utility would provide 200 kvar free.

Increased System Capacity

Power factor correction capacitors increase system current-carrying capacity. Raising the power factor on a kW load reduces kVA. Therefore, by adding capacitors, you can add additional kW load to your system without altering the kVA.

Case 1
Assume a 400 kW load demand at 81% power factor. Tariff Structure: Demand Charge is: $635.00 for the rst 200 kW demand $ 2.80 per kW for all addition Reactive demand charge is: $ 0.60 per kvar in excess of 50% of kW demand In this example, kW demand = 400 kW, therefore 50% = 200 kvar which will be furnished at no cost. kW Adj Cos = PF = ------------- or ------------kVA Hyp Tan = kvar or Opp ------------------------kW Adj This ratio is the basis for the Table of Multipliers (Table 6).

480 kVA 578 Amperes

317 kvar

75% PF Original Condition

360 kW 474 kVA 570 Amperes 95% PF Corrected 148 kvar

450 kW
A plant has a 500 kVA transformer operating near capacity. It draws 480 kVA or 578 amperes at 480 volts. The present power factor is 75%, so the actual working power available is 360 kW. 289.6 kvar 200 kvar
1 2

It is desired to increase production by 25%, which means that about 450 kW output must be obtained. How is this accomplished? A new transformer would certainly be one solution. For 450 kW output, the transformer would be rated at 600 kVA to handle 75% power factor load. More likely, the next size standard rating would be needed (750 kVA). Perhaps a better solution would be to improve the power factor and release enough capacity to accommodate the increased load. To correct 450 kW from 75% to 95%, power factor requires 450 x 0.553 (from Table 6) = 248.8 kvar use 250 kvar at about $2800.00.

400 kW

With 200 kvar allowed at no cost, then

2 = 200 = 0.5 or 50% of kW ----------400 From 1.0 or unity power factor column. Table 6, note that 0.500 falls between 89% and 90% power factor. The billing excess kvar is above that level 81% power factor.
Tan 1 = 0.724 kvar = kW Tan 1 = 400 0.724 = 289.6 kvar Since 200 kvar is allowed, the excess kvar is 89.6 (round to 90) x $0.60 = $54.00 per month billing for reactive demand. Solution: To correct 400 kW from 81% to 90% requires 400 x 0.240 (from Table 6) = 96 kvar. (Use 100 kvar.) The approximate cost for this capacitor is $1250.00. The payoff is about 23 months. Note: kvar charges vary from about 15 cents to a dollar and free kvar ranges from 25% (97% power factor) to 75% (80% power factor) of kW demand.

Figure 8. Correcting Power Factor Increases Transformer Output The same principle holds true for reducing current on overloaded facilities. Increasing power factor from 75% to 95% on the same kW load results in 21% lower current ow. Put another way, it takes 26.7% more current for a load to operate at 75%, and 46.2% more current to operate at 65%.

THE PRICES ABOVE ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.

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Industries with Low Power Factor Benet Most from Capacitors

Low power factor results when inactive motors are operated at less than full load. This often occurs in cycle processes such as those using circular saws, ball mills, conveyors, compressors, grinders, punch presses, etc. where motors are sized for the heaviest load. Examples of situations where low power factor (from 30% to 50%) occur include a surface grinder performing a light cut, an unloaded air compressor and a circular saw spinning without cutting. The following industries typically exhibit low power factors:

Include Power Capacitors in New Construction/Expansion Plans

Including power capacitors in your new construction and expansion plans can reduce the size of transformers, bus, switches, etc., and bring your project in at lower cost. Figure 9 shows how much system kVA can be released by improving power factor. Raising the power factor from 70% to 90% releases 0.32 kVA per kW. On a 400 kW load, 128 kVA is released.

Improved Voltage Conditions

Low voltage, resulting from excessive current draw, causes motors to be sluggish and overheated. As power factor decreases, total line current increases, causing further voltage drop. By adding capacitors to your system and improving voltage, you get more efcient motor performance and longer motor life.

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

Table 1. Typical Low Power Factor Industries

Industry Saw Mills Plastic (Esp. Extruders) Machine Tools, Stamping Plating, Textiles, Chemicals, Breweries Hospitals, Granaries, Foundries Uncorrected Power Factor 45% 60% 55% 70% 60% 70% 65% 75% 70% 80%

Reduced Losses
Losses caused by poor power factor are due to reactive current owing in the system. These are watt-related charges and can be eliminated through power factor correction. Power loss (watts) in a distribution system is calculated by squaring the current and multiplying it by the circuit resistance (12R). To calculate loss reduction:
Original Power Factor % Reduction Losses = 100 100 ------------------------------------------------------------------------- New Power Factor
2

1.00 Corrected Power Factor Original Power Factor .90

1.0
0.9 0

1.00

.90
0

0.9 5

.80

.80

0.8
.70

0
.70

0.70
.60
0.60

.60

.50 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

.50 1.0

kVA of System Capacity Released Per Kilowatt of Load

Figure 9. Corrected Power Factor Releases System kVA

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How Can I Select the Right Capacitors for My Specic Application Needs?
Once youve decided that your facility can benet from power factor correction, youll need to choose the optimum type, size and number of capacitors for your plant. There are two basic types of capacitor installations: individual capacitors on linear or sinusoidal loads, and banks of xed or automatically switched capacitors at the feeder or substation.

Consider the Particular Needs of Your Plant

When deciding which type of capacitor installation best meets your needs, youll have to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each and consider several plant variables, including load type, load size, load constancy, load capacity, motor starting methods and manner of utility billing.

Individual vs. Banked Installations

Advantages of individual capacitors at the load:

Load Type
If your plant has many large motors, 50 hp and above, it is usually economical to install one capacitor per motor and switch the capacitor and motor together. If your plant consists of many small motors, 1/2 to 25 hp, you can group the motors and install one capacitor at a central point in the distribution system. Often, the best solution for plants with large and small motors is to use both types of capacitor installations.

Complete control; Capacitors cannot cause problems on the line during light load conditions No need for separate switching; Motor always operates with capacitor Improved motor performance due to more efcient power utilization and reduced voltage drops Motors and capacitors can be easily relocated together Easier to select the right capacitor for the load Reduced line losses Increased system capacity

Load Size
Facilities with large loads benet from a combination of individual load, group load and banks of xed and automatically-switched capacitor units. A small facility, on the other hand, may require only one capacitor at the control board. Sometimes, only an isolated trouble spot requires power factor correction. This may be the case if your plant has welding machines, induction heaters or dc drives. If a particular feeder serving a low power factor load is corrected, it may raise overall plant power factor enough that additional capacitors are unnecessary.

Advantages of bank installations at the feeder or substation:

Lower cost per kvar Total plant power factor improved reduces or eliminates all forms of kvar charges Automatic switching ensures exact amount of power factor correction, eliminates overcapacitance and resulting overvoltages Table 2. Summary of Advantages/Disadvantages of Individual, Fixed Banks, Automatic Banks, Combination
Method Individual Capacitors Fixed Bank Advantages Most technically efcient, most exible Most economical, fewer installations Best for variable loads, prevents overvoltages, low installation cost Disadvantages Higher installation and maintenance cost Less exible, requires switches and/or circuit breakers Higher equipment cost

Load Constancy
If your facility operates around-the-clock and has a constant load demand, xed capacitors offer the greatest economy. If load is determined by eight-hour shifts ve days a week, youll want more switched units to decrease capacitance during times of reduced load.

Load Capacity
If your feeders or transformers are overloaded, or if you wish to add additional load to already loaded lines, correction must be applied at the load. If your facility has surplus amperage, you can install capacitor banks at main feeders. If load varies a great deal, automatic switching is probably the answer.

Automatic Bank

Combination Most practical for larger Least exible numbers of motors

Utility Billing
The severity of the local electric utility tariff for power factor will affect your payback and ROI. In many areas, an optimally designed power factor correction system will pay for itself in less than two years.

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How Much kvar Do I Need?

The unit for rating power factor capacitors is a kvar, equal to 1000 volt-amperes of reactive power. The kvar rating signies how much reactive power the capacitor will provide. the kvar rating you need to bring power factor to 95%. The charts also indicate how much current is reduced when capacitors are installed.

Sizing Capacitors for Individual Motor Loads

To size capacitors for individual motor loads, use Table 3 below. Simply look up the type of motor frame, RPM and horsepower. The charts indicate Table 3. Suggested Maximum Capacitors Ratings

Sizing Capacitors for Entire Plant Loads

If you know the total kW consumption of your plant, its present power factor and the power factor youre aiming for, you can use Table 6, on Page 13 to select capacitors.

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

Induction Motor hp Rating

Number of Poles and Nominal Motor Speed in RPM 2 3600 RPM Current Reduction % Capacitor kvar 4 1800 RPM Current Reduction % Capacitor kvar 6 1200 RPM Current Reduction % Capacitor kvar 8 900 RPM Current Reduction % Capacitor kvar 10 720 RPM Current Reduction % Capacitor kvar 12 600 RPM Current Reduction % 41 37 34 31 27 25 23 22 20 19 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 11 11 10 50 49 49 45 38 34 30 30 30 30 30 28 19 17 17 17 17 17 17 15 15 15 15 Capacitor kvar 3 4 6 7.5 9 12.5 15 17.5 20 25 27.5 35 40 50 50 60 75 90 95 100 110 120 3 4 5 6 8 10 12.5 17.5 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 90 100 120 135 150 160 180

Used for High Efciency Motors and Older Design (Pre T-Frame) Motors
3 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 2 3 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 9 12.5 15 17.5 22.5 27.5 30 40 50 60 60 75 75 75 1 1.5 2 2.5 4 5 6 7.5 8 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 30 35 40 45 50 75 80 100 14 12 11 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 14 14 14 14 14 12 12 12 11 12 12 12 12 11 10 10 10 11 11 12 10 8 8 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 15 17.5 20 25 30 37.5 45 50 60 60 75 75 1 1.5 2.5 3 4 5 6 7.5 8 15 17.5 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 75 80 90 120 15 13 12 11 10 10 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 24 23 22 20 18 18 17 17 16 16 15 15 14 14 12 12 11 10 10 8 8 8 9 1.5 2 3 3 5 6 7.5 9 10 12.5 15 17.5 25 30 35 40 50 60 75 75 80 85 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7.5 8 10 15 20 22.5 25 30 35 40 50 60 75 90 100 120 150 20 17 15 14 13 12 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 30 28 26 21 21 20 19 19 19 19 19 17 15 12 12 12 11 10 12 12 12 10 12 2 3 4 5 6 7.5 9 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 27.5 30 37.5 50 60 60 75 85 90 100 2 3 4 5 6 7.5 9 10 15 17.5 22.5 25 30 35 40 50 70 80 100 120 130 140 160 27 25 22 21 18 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 42 38 31 28 27 24 23 23 22 21 21 20 17 16 14 14 14 13 14 13 13 12 12 2.5 4 5 6 8 9 10 12.5 15 20 22.5 25 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 100 100 2 3 4 5 7.5 8 10 12.5 15 20 22.5 30 35 40 45 50 70 90 100 120 140 160 180 35 32 30 27 23 21 20 18 16 15 15 14 13 13 12 12 11 11 10 10 9 9 40 40 40 38 36 32 29 25 24 24 24 22 21 15 15 13 13 13 13 13 13 14 13

T-Frame NEMA Design B Motors

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SA02607001E

For use with three-phase, 60 Hz NEMA Classication B Motors to raise full load power factor to approximately 95%.

Table 4. Suggested Capacitor Ratings, in kvars, for NEMA Design C, D and Wound-Rotor Motors
Induction Motor Rating (hp) 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 Design C Motor 1800 and 1200 r/Minimum 900 r/Minimum 5 5 6 7.5 10 12 17.5 19 27 35 37.5 45 54 65 5 6 6 9 12 15 18 22.5 27 37.5 45 60 70 90 Design D Motor 1200 r/Minimum 5 6 6 10 12 15 18 22.5 30 37.5 45 60 70 75 Wound-Rotor Motor 5.5 7 7 11 13 17.5 20 25 33 40 50 65 75 85

Note: Applies to three-phase, 60 Hz motors when switched with capacitors as single unit. Note: Use motor manufacturers recommended kvar as published in the performance data sheets for specic motor types: drip-proof, TEFC, severe duty, high efciency and NEMA design.

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Table 5. Suggested Capacitor Ratings for Medium Voltage Motors

Induction Motor hp Rating Number of Poles and Nominal Motor Speed in RPM 2 3600 RPM Current Reduction % Capacitor kvar 4 1800 RPM Current Reduction % Capacitor kvar 6 1200 RPM Current Reduction % Capacitor kvar 8 900 RPM Current Reduction % Capacitor kvar 10 720 RPM Current Reduction % Capacitor kvar 12 600 RPM Current Reduction % 15 15 14 14 14 13 12 11 10 9 9 8 8 8 7 6 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 Capacitor kvar 25 50 50 75 75 100 100 100 125 125 150 150 200 250 250 300 25 50 50 75 75 100 125 150 150 150

2400 and 4160 Volts Open

100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1250 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 25 25 25 50 50 50 50 75 75 75 75 100 100 125 150 200 25 25 25 50 50 50 75 75 75 100 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 25 25 25 50 50 50 50 75 75 75 100 100 150 150 200 200 25 25 25 50 50 50 75 75 100 125 10 9 8 8 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 25 25 25 50 50 75 75 75 75 100 100 125 150 200 250 250 25 25 25 50 50 75 100 100 100 125 11 10 9 9 8 8 8 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 25 25 25 50 75 75 75 100 100 125 125 150 150 200 250 300 25 25 50 50 75 75 100 100 125 150 11 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 7 7 6 6 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 25 25 25 50 75 75 75 100 100 125 150 150 200 250 250 300 25 25 50 50 75 100 100 100 125 150 12 11 11 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 6 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

2400 and 4160 Volts Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled

Above sizes are intended to provide a corrected power factor of approximately 95% at full load. Because of the limited number of capacitor ratings available, it is not possible to raise every motor PF to 95%. To calculate kvar required to correct power factor to a specic target value, use the following formula:
2 2 hp 0.746 1 PFa 1 PFt kvar (required) = --------------------------- -------------------------- ------------------------- % EFF PFa PFt

Where hp: %EFF: PFa: PFt:

Motor Nameplate Horse Power Motor Nameplate Efciency (Enter the value in decimal) Motor Nameplate Actual Power Factor Target Power Factor

Note: Consult the motor manufacturers data sheet to verify the maximum kvar of capacitors that can be directly connected at motor terminals. To avoid self-excitation, do not exceed the maximum kvar rating that is specied by the motor manufacturer.

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SA02607001E

Instructions:
1. Find the present power factor in column 1. 2. Read across to optimum power factor column. 3. Multiply that number by kW demand.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Example:
If your plant consumed 410 kW, was currently operating at 73% power factor and you wanted to correct power factor to 95%, you would:

Find 0.73 in column 1. Read across to 0.95 column. Multiply 0.607 by 410 = 249 (round to 250). You need 250 kvar to bring your plant to 95% power factor.

If you dont know the existing power factor level of your plant, you will have to calculate it before using Table 6 below. To calculate existing power factor: kW divided by kVA = Power Factor.

Table 6. Multipliers to Determine Capacitor Kilovars Required for Power Factor Correction
Original Corrected Power Factor Power 0.80 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.0 Factor 0.50 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.60 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.77 0.78 0.79 0.80 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 0.982 0.937 0.893 0.850 0.809 0.769 0.730 0.692 0.655 0.619 0.583 0.549 0.516 0.483 0.451 0.419 0.388 0.358 0.328 0.299 0.270 0.242 0.214 0.186 0.159 0.132 0.105 0.079 0.052 0.026 1.008 0.962 0.919 0.876 0.835 0.795 0.756 0.718 0.681 0.645 0.609 0.575 0.542 0.509 0.474 0.445 0.414 0.384 0.354 0.325 0.296 0.268 0.240 0.212 0.185 0.158 0.131 0.105 0.078 0.052 1.034 0.989 0.945 0.902 0.861 0.821 0.782 0.744 0.707 0.671 0.635 0.601 0.568 0.535 0.503 0.471 0.440 0.410 0.380 0.351 0.322 0.294 0.266 0.238 0.211 0.184 0.157 0.131 0.104 0.078 1.060 1.015 0.971 0.928 0.887 0.847 0.808 0.770 0.733 0.697 0.661 0.627 0.594 0.561 0.529 0.497 0.466 0.436 0.406 0.377 0.348 0.320 0.292 0.264 0.237 0.210 0.183 0.157 0.130 0.104 1.086 1.041 0.997 0.954 0.913 0.873 0.834 0.796 0.759 0.723 0.687 0.653 0.620 0.587 0.555 0.523 0.492 0.462 0.432 0.403 0.374 0.346 0.318 0.290 0.263 0.236 0.209 0.183 0.156 0.130 0.104 0.078 0.052 0.026 0.000 1.112 1.067 1.023 0.980 0.939 0.899 0.860 0.822 0.785 0.749 0.713 0.679 0.646 0.613 0.581 0.549 0.518 0.488 0.458 0.429 0.400 0.372 0.344 0.316 0.289 0.262 0.235 0.209 0.182 0.156 0.130 0.104 0.078 0.052 0.026 1.139 1.094 1.050 1.007 0.966 0.926 0.887 0.849 0.812 0.776 0.740 0.706 0.673 0.640 0.608 0.576 0.545 0.515 0.485 0.456 0.427 0.399 0.371 0.343 0.316 0.289 0.262 0.236 0.209 0.183 0.157 0.131 0.105 0.079 0.053 1.165 1.120 1.076 1.033 0.992 0.952 0.913 0.875 0.838 0.802 0.766 0.732 0.699 0.666 0.634 0.602 0.571 0.541 0.511 0.482 0.453 0.425 0.397 0.369 0.342 0.315 0.288 0.262 0.235 0.209 0.183 0.157 0.131 0.105 0.079 1.192 1.147 1.103 1.060 1.019 0.979 0.940 0.902 0.865 0.829 0.793 0.759 0.726 0.693 0.661 0.629 0.598 0.568 0.538 0.509 0.480 0.452 0.424 0.396 0.369 0.342 0.315 0.289 0.262 0.236 0.210 0.184 0.158 0.132 0.106 1.220 1.175 1.131 1.088 1.047 1.007 0.968 0.930 0.893 0.857 0.821 0.787 0.754 0.721 0.689 0.657 0.626 0.596 0.566 0.537 0.508 0.480 0.452 0.424 0.397 0.370 0.343 0.317 0.290 0.264 0.238 0.212 0.186 0.160 0.134 0.108 0.081 0.055 0.028 0.000 1.248 1.203 1.159 1.116 1.075 1.035 0.996 0.958 0.921 0.885 0.849 0.815 0.782 0.749 0.717 0.685 0.654 0.624 0.594 0.565 0.536 0.508 0.480 0.452 0.425 0.398 0.371 0.345 0.318 0.292 0.266 0.240 0.214 0.188 0.162 0.136 0.109 0.083 0.056 0.028 1.276 1.231 1.187 1.144 1.103 1.063 1.024 0.986 0.949 0.913 0.877 0.843 0.810 0.777 0.745 0.713 0.682 0.652 0.622 0.593 0.564 0.536 0.508 0.480 0.453 0.426 0.399 0.373 0.346 0.320 0.294 0.268 0.242 0.216 0.190 0.164 0.137 0.111 0.084 0.056 1.306 1.261 1.217 1.174 1.133 1.093 1.054 1.016 0.979 0.943 0.907 0.873 0.840 0.807 0.775 0.743 0.712 0.682 0.652 0.623 0.594 0.566 0.538 0.510 0.483 0.456 0.429 0.403 0.376 0.350 0.324 0.298 0.272 0.246 0.220 0.194 0.167 0.141 0.114 0.086 1.337 1.292 1.248 1.205 1.164 1.124 1.085 1.047 1.010 0.974 0.938 0.904 0.871 0.838 0.806 0.774 0.743 0.713 0.683 0.654 0.625 0.597 0.569 0.541 0.514 0.487 0.460 0.434 0.407 0.381 0.355 0.329 0.303 0.277 0.251 0.225 0.198 0.172 0.145 0.117 1.369 1.324 1.280 1.237 1.196 1.156 1.117 1.079 1.042 1.006 0.970 0.936 0.903 0.870 0.838 0.806 0.775 0.745 0.715 0.686 0.657 0.629 0.601 0.573 0.546 0.519 0.492 0.466 0.439 0.413 0.387 0.361 0.335 0.309 0.283 0.257 0.230 0.204 0.177 0.149 0.121 0.093 0.063 0.032 0.000 1.403 1.358 1.314 1.271 1.230 1.190 1.151 1.113 1.076 1.040 1.004 0.970 0.937 0.904 0.872 0.840 0.809 0.779 0.749 0.720 0.691 0.663 0.635 0.607 0.580 0.553 0.526 0.500 0.473 0.447 0.421 0.395 0.369 0.343 0.317 0.291 0.264 0.238 0.211 0.183 0.155 0.127 0.097 0.066 0.034 1.440 1.395 1.351 1.308 1.267 1.227 1.188 1.150 1.113 1.077 1.041 1.007 0.974 0.941 0.909 0.877 0.846 0.816 0.786 0.757 0.728 0.700 0.672 0.644 0.617 0.590 0.563 0.537 0.510 0.484 0.458 0.432 0.406 0.380 0.354 0.328 0.301 0.275 0.248 0.220 0.192 0.164 0.134 0.103 0.071 1.481 1.436 1.392 1.349 1.308 1.268 1.229 1.191 1.154 1.118 1.082 1.048 1.015 0.982 0.950 0.918 0.887 0.857 0.827 0.798 0.769 0.741 0.713 0.685 0.658 0.631 0.604 0.578 0.551 0.525 0.499 0.473 0.447 0.421 0.395 0.369 0.342 0.316 0.289 0.261 0.233 0.205 0.175 0.144 0.112 1.529 1.484 1.440 1.397 1.356 1.316 1.277 1.239 1.202 1.166 1.130 1.096 1.063 1.030 0.998 0.966 0.935 0.905 0.875 0.846 0.817 0.789 0.761 0.733 0.706 0.679 0.652 0.626 0.599 0.573 0.547 0.521 0.495 0.469 0.443 0.417 0.390 0.364 0.337 0.309 0.281 0.253 0.223 0.192 0.160 1.589 1.544 1.500 1.457 1.416 1.376 1.337 1.299 1.262 1.226 1.190 1.156 1.123 1.090 1.068 1.026 0.995 0.965 0.935 0.906 0.877 0.849 0.821 0.793 0.766 0.739 0.712 0.685 0.659 0.633 0.609 0.581 0.555 0.529 0.503 0.477 0.450 0.424 0.397 0.369 0.341 0.313 0.283 0.252 0.220 0.186 0.149 0.108 0.060 0.000 1.732 1.687 1.643 1.600 1.559 1.519 1.480 1.442 1.405 1.369 1.333 1.299 1.266 1.233 1.201 1.169 1.138 1.108 1.078 1.049 1.020 0.992 0.964 0.936 0.909 0.882 0.855 0.829 0.802 0.776 0.750 0.724 0.698 0.672 0.646 0.620 0.593 0.567 0.540 0.512 0.484 0.456 0.426 0.395 0.363 0.329 0.292 0.251 0.203 0.143 0.000

0.000 0.026 0.052 0.078 0.000 0.026 0.052 0.000 0.026 0.000

0.000 0.027 0.053 0.080 0.000 0.026 0.053 0.000 0.027 0.000

0.000 0.028 0.058 0.089 0.000 0.030 0.061 0.000 0.031 0.000

0.000 0.037 0.079 0.126 0.000 0.041 0.089 0.000 0.048 0.000

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SA02607001E

Table 7. Recommended Wire Sizes, Switches and Fuses for Three-Phase, 60 Hz Capacitors
Note: These wire sizes are based on 135% of rated current in accordance with the National Electrical Code , Article 460.
kvar 240 Volts Current (Amps) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7.5 8 10 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6.0 7.2 9.6 12 14 18 19 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 72 84 96 108 120 144 180 192 216 241 289 300 361 432 481 Wire Size 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 250M 300M 350M 400M (2)3/0 (2)3/0 Fuse (Amps) 3 6 6 10 10 15 20 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 80 80 100 100 125 150 175 200 200 250 300 350 400 400 500 500 Switch (Amps) 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 60 60 60 60 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 400 400 400 400 400 600 600 600 800 800 480 Volts Current (Amps) 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.8 6.0 7.2 9.0 9.6 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 36 42 48 54 60 72 90 96 108 120 144 150 180 216 241 289 300 361 432 480 Wire Size 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 12 10 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 1/0 1/0 1/0 2/0 3/0 3/0 250M 350M 400M Fuse (Amps) 3 3 6 6 6 10 10 15 15 20 20 25 30 40 40 50 50 60 80 80 100 100 125 150 175 200 200 200 250 300 400 400 Switch (Amps) 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 60 60 60 60 60 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 200 400 400 400 400 600 600 600 800 800 600 Volts Current (Amps) 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.8 4.8 5.8 7.2 7.7 9.6 12 14 17 19 22 24 29 34 38 43 48 58 72 77 86 96 115 120 144 173 192 231 241 289 346 384 Wire Size 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 12 10 10 10 8 8 6 6 6 4 3 3 1 1 2/0 2/0 3/0 250M 300M 400M 400M (2)3/0 Fuse (Amps) 3 3 6 6 6 10 10 10 15 15 20 20 25 30 35 40 40 50 60 80 90 100 100 125 150 150 175 200 200 250 300 350 400 400 500 Switch (Amps) 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 60 60 60 60 60 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 200 400 400 400 400 400 600 600 800

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 75 80 90 100 120 125 150 180 200 240 250 300 360 400

(2)250M 600 (2)350M 750 (2)400M 800

500 (2)3/0 500 (2)4/0 (2)250M 600 (2)350M 750 (2)500M 800

(2)250M 600 (2)300M 650

90C Copper Type THHN, XHHW or equivalent, applied at 75C ampacity. Rate current based on operation at rated voltage, frequency and kvar. Consult National Electrical Code for other wire types. Above size based on 30C Ambient Operation. (Refer to NEC table 310-16.)

Note: Fuses furnished within Capacitor Assembly may be rated at higher value than shown in this table. The table is correct for eld installations and reects the manufacturers suggested rating for overcurrent protection and disconnect means in compliance with the National Electrical Code.

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SA02607001E

Where Should I Install Capacitors in My Plant Distribution System?

At the Load
Since capacitors act as kvar generators, the most efcient place to install them is directly at the motor, where kvar is consumed. Three options exist for installing capacitors at the motor. Use Figures 10 16, and the information below to determine which option is best for each motor.

At the Service Feeder

When correcting entire plant loads, capacitor banks can be installed at the service entrance, if load conditions and transformer size permits. If the amount of correction is too large, some capacitors can be installed at individual motors or branch circuits. When capacitors are connected to the bus, feeder, motor control center or switchboard, a disconnect and overcurrent protection must be provided.
Main Bus or Feeder

Location A Motor Side of Overload Relay

New motor installations in which overloads can be sized in accordance with reduced current draw Existing motors when no overload change is required

Location B Line Side of Starter

Existing motors when overload rating surpasses code (see Appendix for NEC code requirements) Motors that are jogged, plugged, reversed Multi-speed motors Starters with open transition and starters that disconnect/reconnect capacitor during cycle Motors that start frequently Motor loads with high inertia, where disconnecting the motor with the capacitor can turn the motor into a self-excited generator
Fused Switch or Circuit Breaker

Location C Line Side of Starter

Capacitor Bank

Figure 11. Installing Capacitors Online

Locating Capacitors on Motor Circuits

Motor Feed C B Thermal Overload A

Motor

Fused Safety Switch or Breaker

Motor Starter

Install at Location:

Capacitor C

Capacitor B

Capacitor A

Figure 10. Locating Capacitors on Motor Circuits

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SA02607001E

Locating Capacitors on Reduced Voltage and Multi-Speed Motors

5 Start: Close 6-7-2-3-4 Transfer: Line Open 6-7 Run: Close 1-5 4A 7 3 B 6 2 C 1 8 Motor Stator Wye Start: Close 1-2-3-7-8 Delta Run: Close 1-2-3-4-5-6 1 2 A B 5 Motor Stator 4

7 Line

Figure 12. Autotransformer Closed Transition

6 3 C

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

Note: Connect capacitor on motor side of starting contacts (2, 3, 4) at points A B C.

Figure 15. Wye-Delta Starting

Start: Close 1-2-3 Second Step: Open 4-5-6 Line Third Step: Close 7-8-9 6 3 A 5 2 B 4 1 C 7 8 Motor Stator 9

Note: Connect capacitor on motor side of starting contacts (1, 2, 3) at points A B C.

Start: Close 1-2-3 Run: Close 4-5-6 Line

6 3 A 5 2 B 4 1 C Motor Stator

Figure 13. Series Resistance Starting

Note: Connect capacitor on motor side of starting contactor (1, 2, 3) at points A B C.

Line

A 3 B 2 C 1 6 5 4 Motor Stator

Figure 16. Reactor Starting

Note: Connect capacitor on motor side of starting contactor (1, 2, 3) at points A B C.

Start: Close 1-2-3 Run: Close 4-5-6

Figure 14. Part-Winding Starting

Note: Connect capacitor on motor side of starting contacts (1, 2, 3) at points A B C.

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SA02607001E

Can Capacitors Be Used in Non-Linear, Non-Sinusoidal Environments?

Until recently, almost all loads were linear, with the current waveform closely matching sinusoidal voltage waveform and changing in proportion to the load. Lately, non-linear loads which draw current at frequencies other than 60 Hz have increased dramatically. Examples of linear and non-linear devices are as follows:

For example, if the plant has a 1,500 kVA transformer with 5-1/2% impedance and the short-circuit rating of the utility is 48,000 kVA, then kVAsys would equal 17,391 kVA. If 350 kvar of capacitors were used to improve power factor, h would be:
h = 17,391 = --------------------350 49.7 = 7.0

Linear Devices

Because h falls right on the 7th harmonic, these capacitors could create a harmful resonance condition if non-linear devices were present in the factory. In this case the capacitors should be applied only as harmonic ltering assemblies. For further information, see Harmonic Filtering on Page 19 of this document. See Page 19 (Part 2) for an additional discussion on harmonics.

Motors Incandescent lighting Heating loads

Non-Linear Devices

What About Maintenance?

Capacitors have no moving parts to wear out and require very little maintenance. Check fuses on a regular basis. If high voltages, harmonics, switching surges or vibration exists, fuses should be checked more frequently. Capacitors from Eaton operate warm to the touch. If the case is cold, check for blown fuses, open switches or other power losses. Also check for bulging cases and puffed up covers, which signal operation of the capacitor interrupter.

dc drives Variable frequency drives Programmable controllers Induction furnaces Arc-type lighting Personal computers Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)

The increase in non-linear loads has led to harmonic distortion in electrical distribution systems. Although capacitors do not cause harmonics, they can aggravate existing conditions. Because harmonic voltages and currents are affected by all of the equipment in a facility, they are sometimes difcult to predict and model.

Code Requirements for Capacitors

Nameplate kvar: Tolerance +15, - 0%. Discharge Resistors: Capacitors rated at 600 volts and less must reduce the charge to less than 50 volts within 1 minute of de-energization. Capacitors rated above 600 volts must reduce the charge within 5 minutes. Continuous Operation: Up to 135% rated (nameplate) kvar, including the effects of 110% rated voltage (121% kvar), 15% capacitance tolerance and harmonic voltages over the fundamental frequency (60 Hz). Dielectric Strength Test: Twice the rated ac voltage (or a dc voltage 4.3 times the ac rating for non-metalized systems). Overcurrent Protection: Fusing between 1.65 and 2.5 times rated current to protect case from rupture. Does not preclude NEC requirement for overcurrent protection in all three ungrounded conductors.
Note: When capacitor is connected to the load side of the motor overcurrent protection, fused disconnects or breaker protection is not required. However, Eaton highly recommends fusing for all indoor applications whenever employees may be working nearby.

Capacitor Banks and Transformers Can Cause Resonance

Capacitors and transformers can create dangerous resonance conditions when capacitor banks are installed at the service entrance. Under these conditions, harmonics produced by non-linear devices can be amplied many fold. Problematic amplication of harmonics becomes more likely as more kvar is added to a system which contains a signicant amount of non-linear load. You can estimate the resonant harmonic by using the following formula:
kVA sys ---------------------kvar kVA sys = Short Circuit Capacity of the System kvar = Amount of Capacitor kvar on the Line h = h = The Harmonic Number referred to a 60 Hz Base

If h is near the values of the major harmonics generated by a non-linear device i.e., 3, 5, 7, 11 then the resonance circuit will greatly increase harmonic distortion.

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SA02607001E

Useful Capacitor Formulas

Nomenclature: C V A K = = = = Capacitance in F Voltage Current 1000 B. Miscellaneous kW 1. Power Factor = Cos = ------------kVA kvar Tan = ------------- (See Table 6) kW Single-Phase 2. kW = 3. kVA = V A PF --------------------------10 3 VA ------------10 3 Three-Phase 3 V A PF ---------------------------------------10 3 3VA --------------------------10 3 kVA 10 -------------------------3V
3

A. Additional Data 1. Simplified Voltage Rise: kvar ( Cap. ) % Transformer Reactance % V.R. = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------kVA ( Transformer ) 2. Losses Reduction: Original PF 2 % L.R. = 100 100 ----------------------------------- Improved PF

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

3. Operation at other than rated voltage and frequency: Note: Use of voltages and frequencies above the rated values can be dangerous. Consult the factory for any unusual operating conditions. a. Reduced Voltage: 2 ---------------------------------------Actual kvar ( Output ) = Rated kvar Actual Voltage Rated Voltage b. Reduced Frequency: Actual Freq. Actual kvar = Rated kvar --------------------------------- Rated Freq. c. Examples:
(a) Voltage Reduction:

3 4. Line Current kVA 10 = -------------------------(Amperes) V

5. Capacitor Current = ( 2f )CV 10 6 (Amperes)

3 kvar 10 also: --------------------------V

kvar 10 --------------------------3V

-------6. kVA = kW (kW Motor Input) PF hp 0.746 7. kW (Motor Input) = --------------------------efficiency 8. Approx. Motor kVA = Motor hp (at full load)

--------kvar ( 208 ) = kvar ( 240 ) 208 240 --------kvar ( 120 ) = kvar ( 240 ) 120 240

= 0.75

( 10 kvar @ 240 V = 7.5 kvar @ 208 V )

2

C. Standard Data
Voltage F/kvar Total 61.2 46.0 11.5 7.37 0.46 0.153 Amperes/kvar Single-Phase 4.81 4.17 2.08 1.67 Three-Phase 2.78 2.41 1.20 0.96 0.24 0.139

= 0.25

( 10 kvar @ 240 V = 2.5 kvar @ 120 V )

(b) Frequency Reduction:

kvar ( 50 Hz ) = kvar ( 60 Hz ) 50 = 0.83 ----- 60 ( 60 kvar @ 480 V 60 Hz = 50 kvar, 480 V, 50 Hz )

208 240 480 600 2400 4160

Note: Above is at nominal voltage @ 60 Hz = nominal kvar F and current.

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SA02607001E

PART TWO: HARMONICS Introduction

There has been much discussion and interest in recent years on the subject of power quality. Whereas in the past, power received from the electric utility and utilized by an industrial plant was generally a pure sinusoidal waveform i.e., clean power more frequently today industrial plants are nding they have to deal with the problem of dirty power. Dirty power is a slang expression used to describe a variety of voltage and current contaminations on the pure sinusoidal waveform. Dirty power can come in the form of short-term transients or steady-state, continuous distortions. In addition, the sources of dirty power can be external to a plant (as might be the case if a neighboring plant is contaminating the utilitys distribution system) or the source can reside within the plant itself. Harmonic distortion is a specic type of dirty power that is usually associated with an industrial plants increased use of adjustable speed drives, power supplies and other devices using solid-state switching. However, harmonic distortion can be generated by any of a variety of non-linear electrical devices existing within a manufacturing plant or within nearby plants. Because harmonic distortion can cause serious operating problems in certain plant environments, it is important that the plant engineer or facilities personnel understand the fundamentals of harmonic distortion, know how to recognize the symptoms of this problem, and know what can be done to solve the problems once they are identied.

Volts Fundamental

5th Harmonic

Time

Figure 17. Fundamental and 5th Harmonic

Volts

What are Harmonics?

Time

A harmonic is a component of a periodic wave having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental power line frequency of 60 Hz. For example, 300 Hz (5 x 60 Hz) is a fth order harmonic of the fundamental frequency Figure 17. Figure 18 shows the resultant wave when the fundamental and fth harmonic are combined. The result is harmonic distortion of the power waveform. Harmonics which are typically seen on a power system can be subdivided into two distinct categories by the nature of problems they create and the remedies they usually require. 1. Those harmonic currents which are the dominant harmonic orders created by threephase non-linear loads 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, and higher order odd harmonics which are not multiples of 3. 2. Those harmonics created primarily by singlephase non-linear loads 3rd order harmonics and higher multiples of 3. These are sometimes referred to as a triplen or zero-sequence harmonics and are usually accompanied by some 5th, 7th and other higher order harmonics.

Figure 18. Fundamental and 5th Harmonic Combined Harmonics are a steady-state phenomenon and should not be confused with short-term phenomena that last less than a few cycles. Transients, electrical disturbances, overvoltage surges and undervoltage sags in the supplied voltage are not harmonics. Some of these short-term disturbances in voltage or current can be mitigated by transient voltage surge suppressors, line reactors, or isolation transformers. However, these devices usually have little, if any, effect on harmonic currents or voltages. The level of voltage or current harmonic distortion existing at any one point on a power system can be expressed in terms of the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the current or voltage waveform. The THD (for a voltage waveform) is given by the following formula:
V2 + V3 + + Vn V thd = -------------------------------------------------V1 where: V 1 = Fundamental Voltage Value V n ( n = 2, 3, 4, etc ) = Harmonic Voltage Values

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SA02607001E

What are the Consequences of High Harmonic Distortion Levels?

Just as high blood pressure can create stress and serious problems in the human body, high levels of harmonic distortion can create stress and resultant problems for the utilitys distribution system, the plants distribution system, as well as all of the equipment that is serviced by that distribution system. The result may be the plant engineers worst fear the shutting down of important plant equipment ranging from a single machine to an entire line or process.

IEEE 519
IEEE Standard 519-1992, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems represents the most recent effort to establish a standard level of acceptable harmonic distortion levels on a power system. The following two Tables 9 and 10 summarize the voltage and current harmonic distortion limits.
Note: The current distortion limits are dependent upon the size of the customers load relative to the available shortcircuit capacity of the utility (stiffness). In this way, customers whose loads potentially have more effect on the utility system and neighboring customers are held to the tighter limits.

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

Equipment shutdown can be caused by a number of events. As an example, the higher voltage peaks that are created by harmonic distortion put extra stress on motor and wire insulation which ultimately can result in insulation breakdown and failure. In addition, harmonics increase rms current resulting in increased operating temperatures for many pieces of equipment resulting in greatly reduced equipment life. Table 8 summarizes some of the negative consequences that harmonics can have on typical equipment found in the plant environment. While these effects are categorized by problems created by current and voltage harmonics, current and voltage harmonic distortion usually exist together (current harmonic distortion causes voltage harmonic distortion). Harmonic distortion disrupts plants. Of greatest importance is the loss of productivity, throughput and possibly sales. These occur because of process shutdowns due to the unexpected failure of motors, drives, power supplies or just the spurious tripping of breakers. Plant engineers realize how costly downtime can be and pride themselves in maintaining low levels of plant downtime. In addition, maintenance and repair budgets can be severely stretched. For example, every 10C rise in the operating temperatures of motors or capacitors can cut equipment life by 50%. Table 8. Negative Consequences of Harmonics on Plant Equipment
Equipment Capacitors Motors Consequences Blown fuses, reduced capacitor life Reduced motor life, inability to fully load motor

Table 9. End User Limits Current Distortion Limits for General Distribution Systems End-User Limits (120 69,000 Volts) Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in % of / L Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)
/SC/IL <11 11h<17 17h<23 23h<35 35h 2.0 3.5 4.5 5.5 7.0 1.5 2.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.4 TDD 5.0 8.0 12.0 15.0 20.0

4.0 <20 7.0 20<50 10.0 50<100 100<1000 12.0 15.0 >1000

All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of actual lSC /l I.

Note: Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above. Note: Current distortions that result in a direct current offset, e.g., half wave converters are not allowed. Note: Where /SC = Maximum Short-Circuit Current at PCC. and /L = Maximum Demand Load Current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC.

Table 10. Utility Limits Voltage Distortion Limits

Bus Voltage at PCC 69 kV and Below 69.001 kV 161 kV 161 kV and above Individual Voltage Distortion (%) 3.0 1.5 1.0 Total Voltage Distortion THD (%) 5.0 2.5 1.5

Note: High voltage systems can have up to 2.0% THD where the cause is an HVDC terminal that will attenuate by the time it is tapped for a user.

Two very important points must be made in reference to the above limitations:

1. The customer is responsible for maintaining a current distortion to within acceptable levels, while the utility is responsible for limiting voltage distortion.
2. The limits are only applicable at the Point of Common Coupling (PPC) between the utility and the customer. The PCC, while not explicitly dened, is usually regarded as the point at which the utility equipment ownership meets the customers, or the metering point. Therefore, the above limits cannot be meaningfully applied to, say, distribution panels or individual equipment within a plant the entire plant must be considered when complying with these limits. Electric utilities are currently considering nancial penalties and/or service interruption for customers injecting excessive harmonics into the utility system. Therefore, while a customer may not be currently penalized for low power factor, a harmonic distortion-based penalty structure, in the manner

Current Harmonic Distortion Problems

Fuses/Breakers False/spurious operation, damaged components Transformers Transformers Motors Electronic Loads Increased copper losses, reduced capacity Increased noise, possible insulation failure Mechanical fatigue Misoperation

Voltage Harmonic Distortion Problems

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of IEEE 519, may be forthcoming.

How are Harmonics Generated?

Harmonics are generated by non-linear loads. A non-linear load is a circuit element that draws current in a non-sinusoidal manner. Until recently, most factory loads were primarily linear, with current waveform closely matching the sinusoidal voltage waveform and changing in proportion to the load. More recently, however, factory loads with major non-linear components have increased dramatically. Table 11 gives typical examples of linear and non-linear devices. Table 11. Examples of Linear and Non-Linear Devices
Primarily Linear Devices Some Motors Incandescent Lighting Heating Loads Devices with Major Non-Linear Components dc Drives Variable Frequency Drives Programmable Controllers Induction Furnaces Solid-State Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) Arc Furnaces Arc Welders

Electronic Power Converters

Electronic power converters e.g., adjustable speed drives, power supplies are by far the largest contributors to harmonic distortion in todays plant environment. An electronic power converter changes electrical energy from one form to another, typically by rectifying the ac voltage into dc and utilizing the dc voltage directly or synthesizing a new ac voltage. This change is accomplished by using solid-state devices silicon control rectiers (SCRs), diodes, transistors to periodically switch in the conducting circuits of the converter. Figure 19 shows a typical harmonic current spectrum for six-pulse electronic power converter. Below are some common names that are typically associated with electronic power converters.

Common Names Given to Electronic Power Converters

Harmonic 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17

Six-Pulse Power Converter 0.0% 17.5% 11.1% 0.0% 4.5% 2.9% 1.0% 0.8%

Adjustable Speed Drives Variable Frequency Drives SCR Drives ac Motor Drives (ac/dc/ac) dc Motor Drives (ac/dc) Three-phase Full Wave Rectiers Three-phase Full Wave Converters Six-pulse Converters

As most plant engineers appreciate, there is an increased use of electronic drives due to their ability to more efciently or precisely drive a motor or process.

Arcing Devices
Arc furnaces and welders are the two types of arcing devices that cause the most harmonic distortion, although arc lighting (uorescent, mercury vapor) will also cause small degrees of harmonic distortion.

Other Equipment
Motors, generators, transformers and arc lighting also have small non-linear components, although the contribution of these devices to total harmonic distortion in a plant tends to be relatively small.

Figure 19. Harmonic Magnitude as Percentage of the Fundamental Current

Note: Harmonic currents typically injected by six-pulse VFDs.

Non-linear devices that cause the most problems can generally be grouped into two categories electronic power converters and arcing devices.

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What Do Power Factor Correction Capacitors Have to Do with Harmonics?

A discussion of power system harmonics is incomplete without discussing the effects of power factor correction capacitors. In an industrial plant containing power factor correction capacitors, harmonic currents and voltages can be magnied considerably due to the interaction of the capacitors with the service transformer. This is referred to as harmonic resonance or parallel resonance. For a typical plant containing power factor correction capacitors, the resonant frequency (frequency at which amplication occurs) normally falls in the vicinity of the 5th to the 13th harmonic. Since non-linear loads typically inject currents at the 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th harmonics, a resonant or near-resonant condition will often result if drives and capacitors are installed on the same system, producing the symptoms and problems outlined in the previous section.
Note: Capacitors themselves do not cause harmonics, but only aggravate potential harmonic problems. Often, harmonic-related problems do not show up until capacitors are applied for power factor correction.

How Do I Diagnose a Potential Harmonics Related Problem?

If a plant engineer suspects that he might have a harmonics problem, the following steps can easily be performed as an initial investigation into potential problems: 1. Look for symptoms of harmonics as listed in Table 8. If one or more of these symptoms occurs with regularity, then the following steps should be taken. 2. If the plant contains power factor correction capacitors, the current into the capacitors should be measured using a true rms current meter. If this value is higher than the capacitors rated current at the system voltage (by >5% or so), the presence of harmonic voltage distortion is likely. 3. Conduct a paper audit of the plants harmonicproducing loads and system conguration. This analysis starts with the gathering of kVA or horsepower data on all the major non-linear devices in the plant, all capacitors, and rating information on service entrance transformer(s). Eaton has specic analysis forms with instructions to guide the plant engineer in collecting this information, and engineers or sales representatives can provide assistance as needed. This data is analyzed by Eaton engineers to determine whether the conditions are present to create unfavorable levels of harmonics. 4. If the electrical distribution system is complex e.g., multiple service entrances, distributed capacitors or if the paper audit is incomplete or considered to be too burdensome, the most denitive way to determine whether harmonics are causing a problem is through an on-site plant audit. This audit involves an inspection of the electrical system layout and connected loads, as well as harmonic measurements taken at strategic locations. This data can then be assembled and analyzed to obtain a clear and concise understanding of the power system. Eaton provides an engineering service to conduct these on-site plant audits.

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

It is a common misconception that the problem of applying capacitors in harmonic environments is limited to problems caused for the capacitor itself that the capacitors lower impedance at higher frequencies causes a current overload into the capacitor and, therefore, must be removed. However, the capacitor/harmonics problem must be viewed from a power system standpoint. The capacitor-induced increase of harmonic voltages and currents on a plants system may be causing problems while the capacitor itself remains within its acceptable current rating.

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How Can Harmonics Problems Be Eliminated?

When power factor correction is required in the presence of non-linear loads, or the amount of harmonic distortion must be reduced to solve power quality problems or avoid penalties, the most reliable, lowest cost solution is often realized with the use of harmonic lters.
Phase A B C

What is a Passive Harmonic Filter?

Reactor

A shunt harmonic lter (see Figure 20) is, essentially, a power factor correction capacitor combined with a series iron core reactor. A lter provides power factor correction at the fundamental frequency and becomes an inductance (like a motor) at frequencies higher than its turning point. Cutler-Hammer harmonic lters are almost always tuned below the 5th harmonic. Therefore, the lter provides an inductive impedance path to those currents at harmonic frequencies created by nearly all three-phase non-linear loads (5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, etc.). Since the lter is not capacitive at these frequencies, the plant electrical system can no longer resonate at these frequencies and cannot magnify the harmonic voltages and currents. A shunt harmonic lter therefore accomplishes three things: 1. Provides power factor correction. 2. Prevents harmonic overvoltages due to parallel resonance. 3. Reduces voltage harmonic distortion and transformer harmonic loading at frequencies above its turning point. In some circumstances, a harmonic resonance condition may accrue gradually over time as capacitors and non-linear loads are installed in a plant. In those instances, replacement of such capacitors with harmonic lters is in order to correct the problem. Figure 20. Shunt Harmonic Filter

Capacitor Bank

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Do I Need to Perform a System Analysis to Correctly Apply Harmonic Filters?

The proper application of harmonic lters can be greatly simplied by recognizing that there are only a few pieces of pertinent information and analysis steps which need to be taken for most systems in order to correctly deal with the problem. Eatons approach to power system harmonic diagnosis and solutions has evolved, via years of accumulated knowledge and experience, to an approach which eliminates needless analytical complexity in the majority of circumstances. Rather, it relies on the relatively few pieces of information which are required to make the correct applications decision. If this information indicates that some type of metering and measurement is required, then only those select measurements which yield useful information will be performed, keeping the complexity and cost to a minimum without sacricing solution correctness. Our abilities in the area of harmonic analysis, however, extend to the state-of-the-art in computerized analysis tools should the customer require the thoroughness afforded by such tools. One of the most basic and useful pieces of information which must be known before attempting to correct power factor in the presence of non-linear loads is the ratio of the total non-linear kVA to the service transformer kVA rating. This ratio alone can often be used to determine whether harmonic lters are necessary to correct power factor or whether plain capacitors can be added without experiencing problems as follows: 1. If the plants total three-phase non-linear load (in kVA, 1 hp = 1 kVA) is more than 25% of the main transformer capacity, harmonic lters will almost always be required for power factor correction. 2. If the plants total three-phase non-linear load is less than 15% of the main transformer capacity, capacitors can usually be applied without problems. 3. If the plants total non-linear load is between 15 and 25%, other factors should be considered. Starting with this most basic information, your Eaton sales representative will work with you to determine what additional information or measurement, if any, is required in order to recommend the correct solution to your problem.

What is Eatons Experience in Harmonic Filtering?

Eaton has been in the power capacitor business for 70 years, manufacturing power factor correction capacitors used in low voltage and medium voltage applications. In the 1980s, we began working with a number of customers to help resolve problems related to harmonic distortion. During this time period, we developed a number of designs to incorporate harmonic ltering in both xed and automatic capacitor banks. The success of these installations has made Eaton the leader in the eld of harmonic lters. With a fully integrated manufacturing process, we maintain the strictest quality control systems in the industry. All power capacitors are 100% tested at various stages in their manufacture and prior to shipment to ensure a long service life. In addition, Eaton provides on-site supervision and start-up assistance to ensure that all capacitor and harmonic ltering assemblies are properly applied in the plant environment. Please call 1-800-809-2772 for assistance in understanding and solving any problems that you have involving capacitors or harmonics in your facility.

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

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Eaton Corporation is a diversified industrial manufacturer ranked among the largest Fortune 500 companies. The electrical group is Eatons largest division and is a global leader in electrical control, power distribution, power quality, automation, and monitoring products and services. Eatons electrical products include brands such as Cutler-Hammer, MGE Office Protection Systems, Powerware, Holec and MEM. Eaton provides PowerChain Management solutions to serve the needs of the industrial, institutional, IT, data center, mission critical, utility, residential and OEM markets worldwide. PowerChain Management solutions help enterprises achieve sustainable and competitive advantages through proactive management of the power system as a strategic, integrated asset throughout its life cycle. With Eatons distribution, generation and power quality equipment; full-scale engineering services; and information management systems, the power system is positioned to deliver powerful results: greater reliability, operating cost efficiencies, effective use of capital, enhanced safety and risk mitigation.

Eaton Corporation Electrical Group 1000 Cherrington Parkway Moon Township, PA 15108 United States 877-ETN-CARE (877-386-2273) Eaton.com

Eaton, Cutler-Hammer, Powerware, PowerChain Management, Holec and MEM are trademarks of Eaton Corporation. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.

2008 Eaton Corporation All Rights Reserved Printed in USA SA02607001E / Z6962 April 2008