Grinding Wheel

Grinding wheel Bond Porosity

Grain Bond fracture Microcracks Workpiece Attritious wear Wheel surface Grain fracture

FIGURE 9.1 Schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel, showing its structure and grain wear and fracture patterns.

TABLE 9.1 Knoop hardness range for various materials and abrasives.

Common glass Flint, quartz Zirconium oxide Hardened steels Tungsten carbide Aluminum oxide

350-500 800-1100 1000 700-1300 1800-2400 2000-3000

Titanium nitride Titanium carbide Silicon carbide Boron carbide Cubic boron nitride Diamond

2000 1800-3200 2100-3000 2800 4000-5000 7000-8000

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Grinding Wheel Types

Grinding face Grinding face (a) Type 1straight (b) Type 2 cylinder

Grinding face Grinding face (c) Type 6straight cup

(d) Type 11flaring cup

Grinding faces (e) Type 27 depressed center

Grinding faces (f) Type 28depressed center

(g) Mounted

FIGURE 9.2 Some common types of grinding wheels made with conventional abrasives (aluminum oxide and silicon carbide). Note that each wheel has a specic grinding face; grinding on other surfaces is improper and unsafe.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Superabrasive Wheels
Type 1A1 1A1RSS (a) (b) (c) 2A2

11A2 DW (d) (e) DWSE (f)

FIGURE 9.3 Examples of superabrasive wheel congurations. The rim consists of superabrasives and the wheel itself (core) is generally made of metal or composites. Note that the basic numbering of wheel types (such as 1, 2, and 11) is the same as that shown in Fig. 9.2. The bonding materials for the superabrasives are: (a), (d), and (e) resinoid, metal, or vitried; (b) metal; (c) vitried; and (f) resinoid.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Grinding Wheel Marking System

Example: 51
Prefix

A
Abrasive type

36
Abrasive grain size

L
Grade

5
Structure

V
Bond type

23

Manufacturer!s record
Manufacturer!s private marking (to identify wheel) (use optional)

Manufacturer!s symbol (indicating exact type of abrasive) (use optional)

A Aluminium oxide C Silicon carbide

Coarse Medium Fine Very fine 8 220 70 30 10 80 240 36 12 90 280 46 14 100 320 54 16 120 400 60 20 150 500 24 180 600

Soft Medium Hard A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Grade scale

Dense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Open 15 16 etc. (Use optional)

B BF E O R RF S V

Resinoid Resinoid reinforced Shellac Oxychloride Rubber Rubber reinforced Silicate Vitrified

FIGURE 9.4 Standard marking system for aluminum-oxide and silicon-carbide bonded abrasives.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Diamond and cBN Marking System

Example: M
Prefix

D
Abrasive type B Cubic boron nitride D Diamond

100
Grit size

P
Grade

100

B
Bond Bond modification

1/8
Diamond depth (in.)

Diamond concentration 25 (low) 50 75 100 (high)

Manufacturer!s symbol (to indicate type of diamond)

20 24 30 36 46 54 60 80 90 100 120 150 180 220 240 280 320 400 500 600 800 1000

A (soft) to Z (hard)

B Resinoid M Metal V Vitrified

1/16 1/8 1/4 Absence of depth symbol indicates solid diamond

A letter or numeral or combination (used here will indicate a variation from standard bond)

FIGURE 9.5 Standard marking system for diamond and cubic-boron-nitride bonded abrasives.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Abrasive Grains
A Grain Chip V Wear flat F F v Workpiece (a) 10 Mm (b) Workpiece

Chip

Abrasive grain

FIGURE 9.6 The grinding surface of an abrasive wheel (A46-J8V), showing grains, porosity, wear ats on grains (see also Fig. 9.7b), and metal chips from the workpiece adhering to the grains. Note the random distribution and shape of the abrasive grains.

FIGURE 9.7 (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. Source: After M.E. Merchant. (b) Schematic illustration of chip formation by an abrasive grain. Note the negative rake angle, the small shear angle, and the wear at on the grain.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Grinding Variables
Chip length, external grinding
V D t d v l Workpiece Grinding wheel Grains

l=

Dd 1 + (D/Dw)

Chip length, internal grinding

l= Dd 1 (D/Dw)

FIGURE 9.8 Basic variables in surface grinding. In actual grinding operations, the wheel depth of cut, d, and contact length, l, are much smaller than the wheel diameter, D. The dimension t is called the grain depth of cut.

Chip length, surface grinding

t= 4v VCr d D

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Grinding Parameters
Chip Ridges

ve o ro

FIGURE 9.9 Chip formation and plowing (plastic deformation without chip removal) of the workpiece surface by an abrasive grain.

Workpiece

Process Variable Wheel speed (m/min) Work speed (m/min) Feed (mm/pass)

Conventional Grinding 1500-3000 10-60 0.01-0.05

Creep-Feed Grinding 1500-3000 0.1-1 1-6

Bung 1800-3600 -

Polishing 1500-2400 -

TABLE 9.2 Typical ranges of speeds and feeds for abrasive processes.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Specic Energy in Grinding

Workpiece Material Aluminum Cast iron (class 40) Low-carbon steel (1020) Titanium alloy Tool steel (T15) Hardness 150 HB 215 HB 110 HB 300 HB 67 HRC Specic Energy W-s/mm3 hp-min/in3 7-27 2.5-10 12-60 4.5-22 14-68 5-25 16-55 6-20 18-82 6.5-30

TABLE 9.3 Approximate Specic-Energy Requirements for Surface Grinding.

Temperature rise:
Temperature rise D1/4d 3/4 V v
1/2

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Residual Stresses
Tension 40 0 mm 0.05 0.10 0.15 mm Tension 80 60 40 MPa 20 Compression 0 220 240 0 200 3000 (15) 2000 (10) 0 2200 0.002 0.004 0.006 Depth below surface (in.) (a) 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 Residual stress (psi x 103) Residual stress (psi x 103) Soluble oil (1:20) 200 20 Highly sulfurized oil 0 220 240 260 Compression 280 2100 0 2800 0.002 0.004 0.006 Depth below surface (in.) (b) 5% KNO2 solution MPa 2200 2400 2600 0

4000 ft/min (20 m/s) 400

FIGURE 9.10 Residual stresses developed on the workpiece surface in grinding tungsten: (a) effect of wheel speed and (b) effect of type of grinding uid. Tensile residual stresses on a surface are detrimental to the fatigue life of ground components. The variables in grinding can be controlled to minimize residual stresses, a process known as low-stress grinding. Source: After N. Zlatin.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Dressing
Single-point dressing diamond for dressing forms up to 608 on both sides of the grinding wheel Grinding wheel 60 Fixed-angle swivelling dresser to dress forms up to 908 on both sides of the grinding wheel Rotary dressing unit for dressing hard grinding wheels or for high-volume production

Precision radius dresser for single- and twin-track bearing production

Formed diamond roll dressing for high-volume production

Silicon carbide or diamond dressing wheel for dressing either diamond or cBN grinding wheels Dressing tool

Dressing tool

(a) Diamond dressing tool Grinding face

Grinding wheel

FIGURE 9.11 (a) Methods of grinding wheel dressing. (b) Shaping the grinding face of a wheel by dressing it with computer-controlled shaping features. Note that the diamond dressing tool is normal to the wheel surface at point of contact. Source: OKUMA America Corporation.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering(b) Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Surface Grinding
Wheel Wheel Workpieces Wheel Work table Workpiece Horizontal-spindle surface grinder: Traverse grinding (a) Workpiece Horizontal-spindle surface grinder: Plunge grinding (b) (c) Rotary table

FIGURE 9.12 Schematic illustrations of surface-grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder, producing a groove in the workpiece. (c) Vertical-spindle rotary-table grinder (also known as the Blanchard-type grinder).
Wheel guard Worktable Workpiece Saddle Feed Bed Wheel head Column

FIGURE 9.12 Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle surface grinder.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Thread and Internal Grinding

Grinding wheel

FIGURE 9.14 Threads produced by (a) traverse and (b) plunge grinding.
(a) (b)

Workpiece Wheel

Workpiece Wheel

Workpiece

Wheel

(a) Traverse grinding

(b) Plunge grinding

(c) Profile grinding

FIGURE 9.15 Schematic illustrations of internal-grinding operations.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Centerless Grinding
Through-feed grinding Plunge grinding Grinding wheel Feed Grinding wheel ! Workpiece

End stop

Work-rest blade Regulating wheel (a) Regulating wheel (b)

Internal centerless grinding Pressure roll

Regulating wheel

Grinder shaft Workpiece (revolves clockwise) Support roll (c) (d)

FIGURE 9.16 (a-c) Schematic illustrations of centerless-grinding operations. (d) A computernumerical-control centerless grinding machine. Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Creep-Feed Grinding

d = 16 mm

Low work speed, v

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 9.17 (a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel depth of cut. (b) A groove produced on a at surface in one pass by creep-feed grinding using a shaped wheel. Groove depth can be on the order of a few mm. (c) An example of creep-feed grinding with a shaped wheel. Source: Courtesy of Blohm, Inc. and Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Finishing Operations
Abrasive grains Size coat Make coat Backing

FIGURE 9.18 Schematic illustration of the structure of a coated abrasive. Sandpaper, developed in the 16th century, and emery cloth are common examples of coated abrasives.

Spindle

Stone

FIGURE 9.19 Schematic illustration of a honing tool to improve the surface nish of bored or ground holes.
Nonabrading bronze guide

Oscillation (traverse if necessary) Stone Rotation

Motor Holder Stone Workpiece

FIGURE 9.20 Schematic illustration of the supernishing process for a cylindrical part: (a) cylindrical microhoning; (b) centerless microhoning.

Workpiece (a) (b)

Rolls

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Lapping
Lap position and pressure control Upper lap Lap Workpiece Abrasive Workpiece

Before Workholding plate After (a) Guide rail (b) Workpieces Machine pan (c) Lower lap

FIGURE 9.21 (a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production lapping on at surfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Chemical-Mechanical Polishing
Abrasive slurry Workpiece carrier Workpiece carrier Polishing pad Workpiece (disk)

Workpiece

Polishing table Polishing table (a) Side view (a) Top view

FIGURE 9.22 Schematic illustration of the chemical-mechanical polishing process. This process is widely used in the manufacture of silicon wafers and integrated circuits, where it is known as chemical-mechanical planarization. Additional carriers and more disks per carrier also are possible.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Polishing Using Magnetic Fields

Drive shaft Guide ring Magnetic fluid and abrasive grains Ceramic balls (workpiece) Float NSNSNSNSNSNS Permanent magnets (a)

S-pole

Workpiece

N-pole

Magnetic fluid (b)

FIGURE 9.23 Schematic illustration of the use of magnetic elds to polish balls and rollers: (a) magnetic oat polishing of ceramic balls and (b) magnetic-eld-assisted polishing of rollers. Source: After R. Komanduri, M. Doc, and M. Fox.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Ultrasonic Machining
Power supply Transducer Glass-graphite epoxy composite 50 mm (2 in.) diameter Slots 0.64 3 1.5 mm (0.025 3 0.060 in.) (b) Holes 0.4 mm (0.016 in.) diameter (c) Glass 1.2 mm (0.048 in.)

Tool Workpiece (a)

Abrasive slurry

FIGURE 9.24 (a) Schematic illustration of the ultrasonic-machining process; material is removed through microchipping and erosion. (b) and (c) Typical examples of cavities produced by ultrasonic machining. Note the dimensions of cut and the types of workpiece materials.

Contact time:
to 5r co co v
1/5

Contact force:
2mv Fave = to

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Process Chemical machining (CM) Electrochemical machining (ECM) Electrochemical grinding (ECG) Electrical-discharge machining (EDM) Wire EDM Laser-beam machining (LBM) Electron-beam machining (EBM) Water-jet machining (WJM) Abrasive water-jet machining (AWJM) Abrasive-jet machining (AJM)

Characteristics Shallow removal (up to 12 mm) on large at or curved surfaces; blanking of thin sheets; low tooling and equipment cost; suitable for low production runs. Complex shapes with deep cavities; highest rate of material removal; expensive tooling and equipment; high power consumption; medium to high production quantity. Cutting o and sharpening hard materials, such as tungsten-carbide tools; also used as a honing process; higher material removal rate than grinding. Shaping and cutting complex parts made of hard materials; some surface damage may result; also used for grinding and cutting; versatile; expensive tooling and equipment. Contour cutting of at or curved surfaces; expensive equipment. Cutting and hole making on thin materials; heataected zone; does not require a vacuum; expensive equipment; consumes much energy; extreme caution required in use. Cutting and hole making on thin materials; very small holes and slots; heat-aected zone; requires a vacuum; expensive equipment. Cutting all types of nonmetallic materials to 25 mm (1 in.) and greater in thickness; suitable for contour cutting of exible materials; no thermal damage; environmentally safe process. Single or multilayer cutting of metallic and nonmetallic materials. Cutting, slotting, deburring, ash removal, etching, and cleaning of metallic and nonmetallic materials; tends to round o sharp edges; some hazard because of airborne particulates.

Process Parameters and Typical Material Removal Rate or Cutting Speed 0.025-0.1 mm/min

V: 5-25 dc; A: 2.5-12 mm/min, depending on current density. A: 1-3 A/mm2 ; typically 1500 mm3 /min per 1000 A. V: 50-380; A: 0.1-500; typically 300 mm3 /min. Varies with workpiece material and its thickness. 0.50-7.5 m/min.

Advanced Machining Processes

1-2 mm3 /min Varies considerably with workpiece material. Up to 7.5 m/min. Varies considerably with workpiece material.

TABLE 9.4 General characteristics of advanced machining processes.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Chemical Milling

4 mm (before machining) 2 mm (after machining)

Chemically machined area

Section

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 9.25 (a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the stiffness-toweight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space launch vehicles by chemical milling of aluminumalloy plates. These panels are chemically milled after the plates have rst been formed into shape, such as by roll forming or stretch forming. Source: ASM International.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Chemical Machining
Agitator 3rd Tank Workpiece Chemical reagent (a) Heating Cooling coils Workpiece (b) Depth Maskant Undercut

Steps 2nd 1st

Edge of maskant Material removed

FIGURE 9.26 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical machining process. Note that no forces are involved in this process. (b) Stages in producing a proled cavity by chemical machining.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Roughness and Tolerance Capabilities

in. 2000 500 125 32 8 1000 250 63 16 2 4 1 0.5 MECHANICAL Abrasive-flow machining Low-stress grinding Ultrasonic machining ELECTRICAL Electrochemical deburring Electrochemical grinding Electrochemical milling (frontal) Electrochemical milling (side wall) Electrochemical polishing Shaped tube electrolytic machining THERMAL Electron-beam machining Electrical-discharge grinding Electrical-discharge machining (finishing) Electrical-discharge machining (roughing) Laser-beam machining Plasma-beam machining (a) (a) (b) CHEMICAL Chemical machining Photochemical machining Electropolishing CONVENTIONAL MACHINING Turning Surface grinding 25 50 6.3 1.60 0.4 0.1 0.025 12.5 3.12 0.8 0.2 0.05 0.012 Surface Roughness, Ra (m) 2500 1250 500 250 125 50 25 12.5 Tolerance, mm x 10-3 5 2.5 1.25 100 50 0.001 in. 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 (b) (c) (b) (d) (a) (b)

Note: (a) Depends on state of starting surface. (b) Titanium alloys are generally rougher than nickel alloys. (c) High current density areas. (d) Low current density areas.

Average application (normally anticipated values) Less frequent application (unusual or precision conditions) Rare (special operating conditions)

FIGURE 9.27 Surface roughness and dimensional tolerance capabilities of various machining processes. Note the wide range within each process. (See also Fig. 8.26.) Source: Machining Data Handbook, 3rd ed., 1980. Used by permission of Metcut Research Associates, Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Chemical Blanking

FIGURE 9.28 Typical parts made by chemical blanking; note the ne detail. Source: Courtesy of Buckabee-Mears St. Paul.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Electrochemical Machining
75 mm 140 mm Telescoping cover Insulating layer Feed Ram

DC

(-)

power supply Insulating coating (+)

Pump for circulating electrolyte Tool Tank

65 mm Forging Machined workpiece

Electrolyte Copper electrode Electrode carrier

(a)

14 holes

86 mm

Workpiece

Electrolyte
112 mm

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 9.29 Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-machining process. This process is the reverse of electroplating, described in Section 4.5.1.

FIGURE 9.30 Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made of a nickel alloy, 360 HB; the part on the right is the shaped electrode. Source: ASM International. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-steel rollerbearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Electrochemical Grinding
Electrolyte from pump Electrode (grinding wheel) Spindle Electrical connection Insulating abrasive particles Workpiece Work table
(1)

1 in (3.1 mm) 8
DC

Inconel

0.020 in. (0.5 mm)

Insulating bushing

(2)

power supply

1 in. (0.4 mm) 64

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 9.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical grinding process. (b) Thin slot produced on a round nickel-alloy tube by this process.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Electrical Discharge Machining

Current Rectifier control Servo control Movable electrode Worn electrode (+) Power supply (-) Spark Tank Workpiece Dielectric fluid Melted workpiece

FIGURE 9.32 Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge-machining process.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

EDM Examples
1.5 mm dia.

Workpiece

8 holes, 0.17 mm

Electrode (a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 9.33 (a) Examples of shapes produced by the electrical-discharge machining process, using shaped electrodes. The two round parts in the rear are a set of dies for extruding the aluminum piece shown in front; see also Section 6.4. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd. (b) A spiral cavity produced using a shaped rotating electrode. Source: American Machinist. (c) Holes in a fuel-injection nozzle produced by electrical-discharge machining.

FIGURE 9.34 Stepped cavities produced with a square electrode by EDM. In this operation, the workpiece moves in the two principal horizontal directions, and its motion is synchronized with the downward movement of the electrode to produce these cavities. Also shown is a round electrode capable of producing round or elliptical cavities. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Wire EDM
Wire Dielectric supply

Wire diameter Spark gap

Workpiece Slot (kerf) Wire guides

Reel

FIGURE 9.35 Schematic illustration of the wire EDM process. As much as 50 hours of machining can be performed with one reel of wire, which is then recycled.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Laser Machining
Flash lamp Reflective end Laser crystal

Partially reflective end Lens Workpiece Power supply

FIGURE 9.36 (a) Schematic illustration of the laser-beam machining process. (b) Cutting sheet metal with a laser beam. Source: (b) Courtesy of Ron-Sinat, Inc.
(b)

(a)

TABLE 9.5 General applications of lasers in manufacturing.

Application Laser Type Cutting Metals PCO2 ; CWCO2 ; Nd:YAG; ruby Plastics CWCO2 Ceramics PCO2 Drilling Metals PCO2 ; Nd:YAG; Nd:glass; ruby Plastics Excimer Marking Metals PCO2 ; Nd:YAG Plastics Excimer Ceramics Excimer Surface treatment (metals) CWCO2 Welding (metals) PCO2 ; CWCO2 ; Nd:YAG; Nd:glass; ruby Note: P=pulsed; CW=continuous wave.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Electron-Beam Machining
High voltage cable (30 kV, DC) Cathode grid Anode Optical viewing system Valve Electron stream Magnetic lens Viewing port Vacuum chamber Work table Workpiece High vacuum pump Deflection coils

FIGURE 9.37 Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process. Unlike LBM, this process requires a vacuum, and hence workpiece size is limited by the chamber size.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Water-Jet Machining
Accumulator Fluid supply Mixer and filter Pump Intensifier Sapphire nozzle Hydraulic unit Jet Workpiece Drain (a) y -axis control x -axis control Controls Valve

Control panel

Abrasive-jet head Collection tank

FIGURE 9.38 (a) Schematic illustration of water-jet machining. (b) A computer-controlled water-jet cutting machine. (c) Examples of various nonmetallic parts machined by the water-jet cutting process. Source: Courtesy of OMAX Corporation.
(b) (c)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Abrasive-Jet Machining
Filters Powder supply and mixer Exhaust Hood Pressure regulator Hand holder Foot control valve (a) (b) Nozzle Workpiece Vibrator

Gas supply

FIGURE 9.39 (a) Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process. (b) Examples of parts produced by abrasive-jet machining; the parts are 50 mm (2 in.) thick and are made of 304 stainless steel. Source: Courtesy of OMAX Corporation.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Design Considerations
Poor Sharp corner

Good Radius 0.25 mm (0.010 in) or greater Breakaway chipping

Undercut 3 mm (1/8 in) wide or greater Coolant hole Best

Backup plate

Through hole (a) (b)

FIGURE 9.40 Design guidelines for internal features, especially as applied to holes. (a) Guidelines for grinding the internal surfaces of holes. These guidelines generally hold for honing as well. (b) The use of a backing plate for producing high-quality through-holes by ultrasonic machining. Source: After J. Bralla.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Economic Considerations
m 0.50 400 10 5 1 0.4

Machining cost (%)

300

200

100

Surface 0 finish, Ra ( in.) 2000 1000 500 250 125 As-cast, sawed, etc. Semifinish turn Rough turn

63 Finish turn

32 Grind

16 Hone

FIGURE 9.41 Increase in the cost of machining and nishing operations as a function of the surface nish required. Note the rapid increase associated with nishing operations.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Case Study: Stent Manufacture

Proximal and distal markers indicate position of stent on radiograph

38 m 8 mm

m (0.315 1.50 in.)

Guide wire 0.356 mm (0.014 in.) max

2.5 mm4.0 mm (0.0100.16 in.) Catheter and balloon used for stent expansion

Variable Thickness Strut (VTSTM) 3-3-3 Pattern

a Notes: a. 0.12 mm (0.0049 in.) section thickness to provide radiopacity b. 0.091 mm (0.0036 in.) thickness for flexibility

FIGURE 9.42 The Guidant MULTI-LINK TETRATM coronary stent system.

FIGURE 9.43 Detail of the 3-3-3 MULTI-LINK TETRATM pattern.

(a) (b) (c)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

FIGURE 9.44 Evolution of the stent surface. (a) MULTI-LINK TETRATM after lasing. Note that a metal slug is still attached. (b) After removal of slug. (c) After electropolishing.