Machine Tools and

Machining
SUBMITTED TO: ENGR. SHAHID FAROOQ
PREPARED BY: FAISAL MAQSOOD
ENROLLMENT NO: 2017-ME-527
Abrasive Machining Processes
Introduction

 Abrasive machining involves material removal by the action of hard, abrasive

particles.
 The use of abrasives to shape parts is probably the oldest material removal
process.

They are important because Introduction:

 They can be used on all types of materials ranging from soft metals to hardened
steels and hard nonmetallic materials such as ceramics and silicon.
 Extremely fine surface finishes (0.025 µm).
 For certain abrasive processes, dimensions can be held to extremely close
tolerances.
Types of Abrasive Machining Processes

 Grinding
 Honing
 Lapping
 Superfinishing
 Polishing
 Buffing
 Abrasive water jet machining
 Ultrasonic machining
Difference between grinding and milling

 The abrasive grains in the wheel are much smaller and more numerous than the
teeth on a milling cutter.
 Cutting speeds in grinding are much higher than in milling.
 The abrasive abrasive grits in a grinding grinding wheel are randomly randomly
oriented oriented.
 A grinding wheel is self-sharpening.
“Particles on becoming dull either fracture to create new cutting edges or are
pulled out of the surface of the wheel to expose new grains”
Surface Grinding

Vertical Surface Grinding Horizontal Surface Grinding

Surface Grinding

Horizontal Grinding Machine

Cylindrical Grinding

Two types of cylindrical grinding:

(a) external, and (b) internal
External Centerless Grinding
Grinding Wheel and Workpiece Interaction

 Grit-workpiece (forming chip)

 Chip-bond
 Chip-workpiece
 Bond-workpiece

 Except the grit-workpiece interaction, which is expected t o produce chip, the

remaining three undesirably increase the total grinding force and power
requirement.
 Therefore, efforts should always be made to maximize gritworkpiece interaction
leading to chip formation and to minimize the rest for best utilization of the
available power.
Grinding Wheel Parameters

 Type of Abrasive material

 Grain size
 Wheel grade
 Wheel structure
 Bonding material
Abrasive Materials

 General Properties
Hardness, wear resistance, toughness, friability
Effective grit geometry due to material
loading at tip

 Grit geometry may undergo substantial change due to mechanical or chemical attrition
leading to rounding or flattening of the sharp cutting points.
 This happens when the work material has hard or abrasive constituent.
 A chip material adhered to the tip of the grit because of some chemical affinity can also
change the effective rake angle of the grit leading to high grinding force, temperature and
poor performance of the grinding wheel.
SiC and Ferrous Materials

 SiC abrasives are harder than friable Al₂Oᴣ but they are usually inferior for
grinding most ferrous materials.
 This is due to the dissociation of SiC to react with and adhere to iron at elevated
temperatures. (Affinity of silicon or carbon for the workpiece ) .
 Therefore, SiC tends to work better than Al₂Oᴣ on some ferrous metals with
excess carbon.
 Superiority of SiC on some cast irons is due to the presence of small amounts of
SiC as a normal constituent in the iron, whic h would have a more drastic effect
on the wear of the softer Al₂Oᴣ
Grain Size

 Grain size is expressed in terms of a SIEVE NUMBER, Sn which corresponds to

the number of openings per linear inch.
 The diameter of an abrasive grain is given by
 The larger the size of grains, more will be material removal, but surface finish will
be worse.
Sieve No Type of Grain
10-24 Coarse
30-60 Medium
70-180 Fine
220-600 Very Fine
Grinding Wheel Structure

“Open” and “dense”

In what conditions these
structures be provided?
Wheel Grade

 Indicates the strength of the binding material.

 When the work material is hard, the grains wear out easily and the sharpness of
the cutting edges is quickly lost. This is known as WHEEL GLAZING.
 To avoid this problem, a soft wheel should be used.
 A-H – Soft Wheel
 J-P – Medium Wheel
 Q-Z – Hard Wheel
Bonding Materials

 Must stand centrifugal forces and high temperatures

 Must resist shattering during shock loading of wheel
 Must hold abrasive grains rigidly in place for cutting yet allow worn grains to be
dislodged so new sharp grains are exposed
Bonding Materials

 Vitrified Bond (V) – Strong and Rigid, commonly used.

 Resinoid (B) – Provides shock absorption and elasticity. They are strong enough.
 Silicate (S) – Provides softness (grains dislodge quickly)
 Shellac (E) – Used for making thin but strong wheels possessing some elasticity.
 Rubber Bonds (R) – For making flexible wheels.
 Metallic Bond (M) – For diamond wheels only.
Grinding Wheel Specification
Grinding Chips

Fig: (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive grain. (A)
chip, (B) workpiece, (C) abrasive grain. Note the large negative rake
angle of the grain. The inscribed circle is 0.065mm in diameter. (b)
Chip formation by an abrasive grain with a wear flat. Note the negative
rake angle of the grain and the small shear angle
Chip Formation
 Chips in this process are formed by the same mechanism of compression and shear as other
machining processes.
 As the grains or abrasives become dull, the cutting forces increase. The increase in the cutting
force causes the grains to plow and rub rather than cut. As the plowing and rubbing increases,
increases, the grains fracture fracture at the cutting cutting edge to revile a new cutting edge.
Chip Formation

 The importance of the grit shape can be easily realized because it determines the grit
geometry e.g. rake and clearance angle.
 The grits do not have definite geometry and the grit rake angle may vary from +45 to -60 or
more.
 Grit with favorable geometry can produce chip in shear mode. However, grits having large
negative rake angle or rounded cutting edge do not form chips but may rub or make a
groove by plowing leading to lateral flow of the workpiece material.
Effect of grinding velocity and rake angle
on force

 A negative rake angle always leads to higher cutting force.

 The difference is narrowed at a high grinding velocity and the grinding force
becomes virtually independent of the rake angle.
Various Stages of Grinding with Grit
Depth of Cut

 At a small grit penetration only sliding of the grit occurs against the workpiece. In this
zone, rise of force with increase of grit penetration is quite high.
 With further increase of the grit penetration, grit starts ploughing causing plastic flow of the
material also associated with high grinding force.
 With further increase of penetration, the grit start cutting and the rate of rise of force with
increase of grit depth of cut is much less than what can be seen in the sliding and ploughing
zone.
Variation of critical depth of cut with
grinding velocity

 Grinding is a combination of rubbing, ploughing and cutting (actual chip formation) .

 A certain level of grit penetration into workpiece is required before chip formation can
start.
 Magnitude of critical grit depth of cut required to initiate cutting becomes less with
the increase of grinding velocity.
Determination of the Density of Active
Grains
 Backer, Marshall and Shaw method: the grinding wheel is rolled over a glass
plate covered with a layer of carbon black.
 Peklenik and Opitz method: employs a thermocouple located at the surface of
the workpiece. As each active grain passes, a thermocouple junction is formed
between the wire and the workpiece and a pulse is obtained from the high
temperature developed that can be counted using an oscilloscope.
 Grisbrook method: the surface of the grinding wheel is viewed on a projection
microscope, and the number of cutting points passing a line on the projection
screen is counted as the wheel is rotated a given amount.
Testing of Grinding Wheels

 Strength of a bond: pass a sintered metal carbide or diamond chisel over the wheel
surface in such a way that it tears a layer of grains from the bond. The forces
required to separate a layer of grains from the bond are taken as a measure of the
strength of the bond.
 Hardness:
1. Drill the wheel with a hard spade-type drill with a constant force. The depth of
penetration in a given time is a measure of wheel hardness.
2. Use an air/abrasive jet to break the bond. The depth of penetration of the jet
erosion in a standard period of time is used to determine equivalent wheel
hardness.
3. Measure the resonant frequency of an isolated wheel after a sharp blow with a
rubber hammer and relate it to hardness.
Grinding Wheel Wear

 Grain fracture: a portion of the grain breaks off, but the rest of the grain remains
bonded in the wheel.
 Attritious wear: dulling of the individual grains, resulting in flat spots and
rounded edges.
 Bond fracture: the individual grains are pulled out of the bonding material.
Grinding Wheel Wear

 (1): the grains are initially sharp, and wear is accelerated due to grain fracture.
 (2): characterized by attritious wear, with some grain and bond fracture.
 (3): the grains become dull and the amount of ploughing and rubbing increases
relative to cutting.
Slotter Machine
Slotter Machine

Slotter Machine Definition:

 A machine tool uses for removing unwanted material chips from the work piece to
make splines, grooves and more.
 This is a reciprocating type of Machine tool. (The Reciprocating type of Machine
tools are Shaper, Planner and Slotter Machine).
 It is known mostly for machining internal surfaces.
 The tool we use in this is Single Point cutting Tool which is made up of High-
Speed Steel.
 This machine is also known as vertical shaper machine.
Slotter Machine
Schematic Diagram of Slotter Machine:
Working Principle of Slotter Machine:

 The working of the Slotter machine is similar to the shaper machine do but the

main difference between them is the Shaper machine works horizontally whereas
Slotter machines work vertically.
Slotter Machine Mechanism:

 Hydraulic Drive (Greater speed Flexibility, Smoother operation, Stroke length

can be adjusted )
 Variable Speed Motor Drive (In this Multi-speed arrangement)
Hydraulic Drive:

 A speed motor drives a hydraulic pump that delivers oil at a constant pressure to
the line.
 A regulating valve admits oil under pressure to each end on the piston alternately.
 At the same time allowing oil from the opposite end of the piston to return to the
reservoir.
 The piston is pushed by the oil and being connected to ram by piston rod, pushes
the ram carrying the tool.
 The admission of oil to each end of the piston, alternately, is accomplished with the help of trip
dogs and pilot valves.
 As the ram moves and complete its stroke (Forward and Return) a trip dog will trip the pilot
valve which operates the regulating valve.
 The regulating valve will admit the oil to the other side of the piston and the motion of the ram
will get reversed.
 The length of the ram stroke will depend upon the position of trip dogs. The length of the ram
stroke can be changed by unclamping and moving the trip dogs to the desired position.
Variable Speed Motor Drive:

 In this type of slotter, speed is obtained by different gears present in the gearbox
and the shaft rotates with the help of an electrical motor.
 Basically it is used in modern large slotting machines.
Slotter Machine Parts:

A slotter machine consists of these following parts:

 Base.
 Column.
 Saddle.
 Crosslide.
 Rotating table.
 Ram and tool head assembly.
 Ram drive mechanism.
 Feed mechanism.
Slotter Machine Parts:
Base or Bed

 The base is rigidly built to take up all the cutting forces and the entire load of the
machine.
 The top of the bed is accurately finished to provide guideways on which the
saddle is mounted.
 The guideways are perpendicular to the column face.
Column

 The column is the vertical member which is cast integrally with the base and
houses driving mechanism of the ram and feeding mechanism.
 The front vertical face of the column is accurately finished for providing ways in
which the ram reciprocates.
Saddle

 The saddle is mounted upon the guideways and may be moved toward or away
from the column either power or manual control to supply longitudinal feed to the
work.
 The top face of the saddle is accurately finished to provide guideways for the
cross-slide. These guideways are perpendicular to the guideways on the base.
Cross-slide

 The cross-slide is mounted upon the guideways of the saddle and maybe moved
parallel to the face of the column.
 The movement of the slide may be controlled either by hand or power to supply
crossfeed.
Rotary Table

 It can rotate on cross-slide to provide circular feeding of the work.

 It can hold the work by clamping, using fixtures, fixing vice, etc.
 It has the arrangement of rotary feeding either by hand or by power.

On some machines, the table may be graduated in degrees for indexing.

Ram and Toolhead Assembly

 Ram slides on the guideways mounted on the front vertical face of the column.
 Ram provides a slot for changing the position of the stroke.
 Ram carries the tool, which is mounted at the bottom – end of the tool head.
Ram Drive Mechanism

 It provides the circular motion of the motor to the reciprocating motion of the ram
in a vertical plane.
 It also provides the arrangement of slower speed during the cutting or forward
stroke and greater speed during the return stroke to reduce the idle time.
Feed Drive Mechanism

 It provides the arrangement of longitudinal and cross–a feed of the table either by
power or manual.
 It also provides the arrangement of circular or rotary feeding of the table on a
vertical axis.
 Intermittent feeding of the table is supplied at the beginning of each cutting or
forward stroke of the ram.
Kinematic System of Slotter Machine:
Types of Slotter Machine:

The slotter machine can be classified into two types:

 Puncher Slotter Machine
 Precision Slotter Machine
Puncher Slotter Machine:

 This is a heavy and rigid type of machine.

 This machine designed for the removal of a large amount of metal from forged or
cast material.
 The length of the puncher slotter is large it may be as long as 1800 to 2000 mm.
Precision Slotter Machine:

 It is a simple and lighter machine. It is operated at high speeds and the machine is
mainly designed to take light cuts for accurate surface finish.
 The machine can handle a number of identical works on a production basis by
using special jigs. These machines are fitted with a whit worth quick return
mechanism.
Slotter Machine Operations:

It is used for various operations like:

 Internal and external Flat surface Machining.
 The internal recess of circular, semi-circular, concave and convex surfaces.
 Internal and External Circular surfaces Machining.
 Blind Holes Internal machining.
 For shaping internal and external forms or profiles.
 The machine operates vertical, Horizontal and at Some angle too (Inclined Surfaces).
 Irregular surface machining.
 Machining operation of Dies and Punches.
 The operation like slots, grooves, splines, and keyways for both internal and external surfaces.
 Internal and external gear teeth machining.
Machining Operations of a Slotter
Machine
Slotter Machine Specification:

The specifications of a Slotter Machine is depended on the several factors some of these are:
 Power Input
 Type of drive
 Maximum table drive
 The maximum length of ram stroke
 Number of speed
 Number of feed
 Table feed
 Floor space required
 The diameter of the Work Table in MM
 kW of motor
Slotter Machine Application:

These are the applications of a Slotter Machine:

 It is used for cutting Slots, Spline and Keyways, both internal and external.
 It is also used for the Machining of internal and external gears.
 Internal machining of blind holes.
 It is used for light cuts.
Advantages of Slotter Machine:

The advantages of Slotter Machines are:

 This is a light machine.
 The tool uses here is a single-point cutting tool.
 Low-cost machine.
 Low Maintenance.
 Accurate surface finish.
 Machine efficiency is more.
Disadvantages of Slotter Machine:

The disadvantages of Slotter Machines are:

 Rigid in construction.
 Skilled worker requires to operate.
Differences between the Shaper Machine,
Planner Machine, and Slotter Machine:
SHAPER PLANER SLOTTER
The tool reciprocates in a Job reciprocates in a horizontal Tool reciprocates in verticle
horizontal axis and job feeds in axis and tool feeds in axis and job feeds in
intermittent translatory motion. intermittent translatory motion. intermittent translatory motion.

Low machining accuracy. High machining accuracy. Low machining accuracy.

Power is very less. Power consumption is High. Same as a shaper, The rate of
power consumption is low.

Lighter in construction and less Heavier in construction and Lighter in construction but
rigid. more rigid. more rigid than verticle shaper.

Intended for small Jobs This is intended for large Jobs. This is intended for small Jobs.
SHAPER PLANER SLOTTER

It Requires Less Floor Space. It Requires Large Floor Whereas It Requires Less
Space. Floor Space.

In Shaper, The tool is moving and The tool is Stationary and Same as shaper, The tool is
work is Stationary. work is moving. moving and work is
Stationary.

Usually, only one tool is used on Multiple tooling permits Only one tool is used for
a shaper. machining of more than one machining.
surface at a time.

It can machine only one surface It can machine three surfaces Same as a shaper.
at a time. at a time.

Cost of the machine less. Cost of the machine is high. Cost of the machine is little
less than shaper.
Thank You