1.

Introduction
Once the harmonic sources are clearly defined, they must be interpreted in terms of
their effects on the rest of the system and on personnel and equipment external to
the power system.
Each element of the power system must be examined for its sensitivity to harmonics
as a basis for recommendations on the allowable levels. The main effects of voltage
and current harmonics within the power system are,
The possibility of amplification of harmonic levels resulting from series and
parallel resonances.
A reduction in the efficiency of the generation, transmission and utilization of
electric energy.
Ageing of the insulation of electrical plant components with consequent
shortening of their useful life.
Malfuction of system or plant components.

2. Harmonic effects on power system equipment
The effects of voltage distortion into three general categories
Thermal stress
Insulation stress
Load disruption
Harmonic have the effect of increasing equipment losses and thus the thermal stress.
Harmonics result in increased losses and equipment loss of life. Triplen harmonics
result in the neutral carrying a current which might equal or exceed the phase
currents even if the loads are balanced. This dictates the derating or oversizing of
neutral wires. Moreover, harmonics caused resonance might damage equipment.
Harmonics further interfere with protective relays, metering devices, control and
communication circuits, and customer electronic equipment. Sensitive equipment
would experince maloperation or component failure.

Harmonic currents in the power distribution system can cause:
Transformer heating
Transformer secondary voltage distortion
Increased power losses
Overloaded neutrals and capacitors
Telephone and comminication system noise


2.1 Rms value of a distorted wave
Harmonic quantities are generally expressed in terms of their rms value since the
heating effect depends on this value of the distorted waveform. For a sinusoidal
quantity, the rms value is the maximum value divided by the square root of 2. For a
distorted quantity, under steady-state conditions, the energy dissipated by the J oule
effect is the sum of the energies dissipated by each of the harmonic components:

The rms value of a distorted waveform can be measured either directly by
instruments designed to measure the true rms value, by thermal means or by
spectrum analysers.

2.2 Total harmonic distorsion
The total harmonic distortion quantifies the thermal effect of all the harmonics. THD
applies to both current and voltage and is defined as the rms value of harmonics
divided by the rms value of the fundamental, and then multiplied by 100%. THD of
current varies from a few percent to more than 100%. THD of voltage is usually less
than 5%. Voltage THDs below 5% are widely considered to be acceptable, but values
above 10% are definitely unacceptable and will cause problems for sensitive
equipment and loads.



Harmonic currents and voltages superimposed on the fundamental have combined
effects on equipment and devices connected to the power supply network.

2.3 Instantaneous effects
Harmonics have a number of undesirable effects on power system components and
loads. These fall into two basic categories: short-term and long-term. Short-term
effects are usually the most noticeable and are related to excessive voltage
distortion. On the other hand, long-term effects often go undetected and are usually
related to increased resistive losses or voltage stresses.

Harmonic voltages can disturb controllers used in electronic systems. They can, for
example, affect thyristor switching conditions by displacing the zero-crossing of the
voltage wave.
Harmonics can cause additional errors in induction-disk electricity meters. For
example, the error of a class 2 meter will be increased by 0.3% by a 5th harmonic
ratio of 5% in current and voltage.
Ripple control receivers, such as the relays used by electrical utilities for centralised
remote control, can be disturbed by voltage harmonics with frequencies in the
neighbourhood of the control frequency.
2.4 Long-term effects
Over and above mechanical fatigue due to vibrations, the main long-term effect of
harmonics is heating.

Capacitor heating
The losses causing heating are due to two phenomena: conduction and dielectric
hysteresis. As a first approximation, they are proportional to the square of the rms
current.
Vibrations and noise
The electrodynamic forces produced by the instantaneous currents associated with
harmonic currents cause vibrations and acoustical noise, especially in
electromagnetic devices (transformers, reactors, etc.).
Pulsating mechanical torque, due to harmonic rotating fields, can produce vibrations
in rotating machines.
Interference on communication and control circuits
Disturbances are observed when communication or control circuits are run along side
power distribution circuits carrying distorted currents.
Heating due to additional losses in machines and transformers
* additional losses in the stators (copper and iron) and principally in the rotors
(damping windings, magnetic circuits) of machines caused by the considerable
differences in speed between the harmonic inducing rotating fields and the rotor.
* supplementary losses in transformers due to the skin effect (increase in the
resistance of copper with frequency), hysteresis and eddy currents (in the magnetic
circuit).
Heating of cables and equipment
Losses are increased in cables carrying harmonic currents, resulting in temperature
rise. The causes of the additional losses include:
* an increase in the rms value of the current for an equal active power consumed;
* an increase in the apparent resistance of the core with frequency, due to the skin
effect;
* an increase in dielectric losses in the insulation with frequency, if the cable is
subjected to nonnegligible voltage distortion;
* phenomena related to the proximity of conductors with respect to metal cladding
and shielding earthed at both ends of the cable, etc.
Generally speaking, all electrical equipment (electrical switchboards) subjected to
voltage harmonics or through which harmonic currents flow, exhibit increased energy
losses and should be derated if necessary.

2.5 General limits
* current distortion =1.3 to 1.4%;
* asynchronous machines: permissible stator current distortion =1.5 to 3.5%;
* cables: permissible core-shielding voltage distortion =10%;
2.6 Standardised limits
The series of standards (IEC 61000) for electromagnetic compatibility define certain
limits concerning harmonics, mainly:
* IEC 61000-3-2 which define the limits of harmonic emissions for equipment
consuming less than 16 A per phase (except for certain category of equipment
indicated in the standards).
The case of equipment consuming over 16 A per phase is examined in the technical
spec. IEC/TS 61000-3-4 and should finally be determined by the projected standards
IEC 61000-3-12.
* IEC 61000-2-2 which defines compatibility levels for harmonic voltages in public LV
power supply systems (see fig.4 ).
* IEC 61000-2-4 which defines compatibility levels in industrial networks.
We would remind that compatibility level does not define an absolute limit. There
remains some probability to be slightly beyond the fixed level.


The IEEE limits for voltage and current harmonics shown in Tables 10.1-10.4 are
dependent on several variables and concepts defined as follows:
PCC: Point of common coupling. This point is defined as the point in the utility service
to a particular customer where another customer could be connected.
ISC: Available short circuit current.
IL: 15 or 30 minute (average) maximum demand current.







The thought processes behind these tables are that
1) the customer should be responsible for limiting harmonic currents in accordance
with Tables 10.1-10.3 and
2) the utility should be responsible for limiting harmonic voltages in accordance with
Table 10.4.

3. Harmonic Impacts
Short-term effects can cause nuisance tripping of sensitive loads. Some computer-
controlled loads are sensitive to voltage distortion. For example, one documented
case showed that a voltage distortion of 5.5% regularly shut down computerized
lathes at a large pipe company heat treatment operation. While voltage distortions of
5% are not usually a problem, voltage distortions above 10% will almost always
cause significant nuisance tripping or transformer overheating.
Harmonics can degrade meter accuracy. This is especially true with common single-
phase inductiondisk meters. In general, the meter spins 1-2% faster when a customer
produces harmonic power. However, the greater issue in metering is the question of
how active power, and especially reactive power, should be defined and measured
when distortion is present. Debate on these definitions continues today.
Blown capacitor fuses and failed capacitor cans are also attributed to harmonics.
Harmonic voltages produce excessive harmonic currents in capacitors because of
the inverse relationship between capacitor impedance and frequency. Voltage
distortions of 5% and 10% can easily increase rms currents by 10% to 50%.
Capacitors may also fail because of overvoltage stress on dielectrics. A 10%
harmonic voltage for any harmonic above the 3rd increases the peak voltage by
approximately 10% because the peak of the harmonic usually coincides, or nearly
coincides, with the peak of the fundamental voltage.
Harmonics can also cause transformer overheating. This usually occurs when a
dedicated transformer serves only one large nonlinear load. In such a situation, the
transformer must be derated accordingly. Derating to 0.80 of nameplate kVA is
common.
Overloaded neutrals appear to be the most common problems in commercial
buildings. In a three-phase, four-wire system, the sum of the three phase currents
returns through the neutral conductor. Positive and negative sequence components
add to zero at the neutral point, but zero sequence components are additive at the
neutral.
Power system engineers are accustomed to the traditional rule that balanced three-
phase systems have no neutral currents. However, this rule is not true when power
electronic loads are present. Their zero sequence harmonics (i.e., primarily the 3rd
harmonic and triplens) sum in the neutral wire and can overload the neutral
conductor. Figure 4 illustrates this problem.

Figure 4 Overloaded neutral conductors serving single-phase nonlinear loads.
Many PCs have 3rd harmonic currents greater than 80%. In these cases, the neutral
current will be at least 3 * 80% =240% of the fundamental a-b-c phase current. Thus,
when PC loads dominate a building circuit, it is good engineering practice for each
phase to have its own neutral wire, or for the shared neutral wire to have at least
twice the current rating of each phase wire.

3.1 Parallel resonance
All circuits containing both capacitances and inductances have one or more natural
frequencies. When one of those frequencies lines up with a frequency that is being
produced on the power system, a resonance may develop in which the voltage and
current at that frequency continue to persist at very high values. This is the root of
most problems with harmonic distortion on power systems.
Figure 5.26 shows a distribution system with potential parallel resonance problems.


From the perspective of harmonic sources the shunt capacitor appears in parallel
with the equivalent system inductance (source and transformer inductances) at
harmonic frequencies as depicted in Fig. 5.27b. Furthermore, since the power system
is assumed to have an equivalent voltage source of fundamental frequency only, the
power system voltage source appears short circuited in the figure.
Parallel resonance occurs when the reactance of XC and the distribution system
cancel each other out. The frequency at which this phenomenon occurs is called the
parallel resonant frequency. It can be expressed as follows:






At the resonant frequency, the apparent impedance of the parallel combination of the
equivalent inductance and capacitance as seen from the harmonic current source
becomes very large, i.e.,




Keep in mind that the reactances in this equation are computed at the resonant
frequency.
Q often is known as the quality factor of a resonant circuit that determines the
sharpness of the frequency response. Q varies considerably by location on the power
system. It might be less than 5 on a distribution feeder and more than 30 on the
secondary bus of a large step-down transformer. It is clear that during parallel
resonance, a small harmonic current can cause a large voltage drop across the
apparent impedance,

The voltage near the capacitor bank will be magnified and heavily distorted.
Let us now examine current behavior during the parallel resonance. Let the current
flowing in the capacitor bank or into the power system be Iresonance; thus,


It is clear that currents flowing in the capacitor bank and in the power system (i.e.,
through the transformer) will also be magnified Q times. This phenomenon will likely
cause capacitor failure, fuse blowing, or transformer overheating.
3.2 Series resonance
There are certain instances when a shunt capacitor and the inductance of a
transformer or distribution line may appear as a series LC circuit to a source of
harmonic currents. If the resonant frequency corresponds to a characteristic
harmonic frequency of the nonlinear load, the LC circuit will attract a large portion of
the harmonic current that is generated in the distribution system. A customer having
no nonlinear load, but utilizing power factor correction capacitors, may in this way
experience high harmonic voltage distortion due to neighboring harmonic sources.
This situation is depicted in Fig. 5.29.

During resonance, the power factor correction capacitor forms a series circuit with the
transformer and harmonic sources. The simplified circuit is shown in Fig. 5.30.

The harmonic source shown in this figure represents the total harmonics produced by
other loads. The inductance in series with the capacitor is that of the service entrance
transformer. The series combination of the transformer inductance and the capacitor
bank is very small (theoretically zero) and only limited by its resistance. Thus the
harmonic current corresponding to the resonant frequency will flow freely in this
circuit. The voltage at the power factor correction capacitor is magnified and highly
distorted. This is apparent from the following equation:



4. Thermal losses in a harmonic environment
Harmonics have the effect of increasing equipment copper, iron and dielectric losses
and thus the thermal stress. Equipment derating becomes a preventive requirement
in this case.
4.1. Copper losses
If skin effect is neglected, the pu increase in copper losses due to harmonics is
determined by the current distortion factor, alternatively the voltage distortion factor;
the two being equal for a pure resistance.


4.2. Iron (core) losses
Iron losses are those losses taking place in an iron core which is being magnetised
by an applied excitation or is rotating in a magnetic field. These losses consist of
hysteresis loss and eddy-current loss and result in reducing the effciency and raising
the core temperature thus limiting the output.
Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of magnetisation of an iron core, and depends
on the volume and quality of the used magnetic material, maximum value of the flux
density and frequency of electric current.
Eddy-current loss is the power loss associated with the flow of eddy currents induced
in the armature core of a rotating machine as a result of its rotation in the magnetic
field or in the core of a transformer as a result of ac excitation.
The iron loss is composed of hysteresis loss and eddy-current loss, and can be
expressed as follows, assuming sinusoidal flux density:

Here, pfe represents total iron loss, phys is hysteresis loss, Peddy is eddy current
loss, eh is hysteresis coefficient, ee is eddy-current coefficient, is frequency, Bmax is
amplitude of flux density, and alfa is a constant.

5. Rotating Machines
In the rotating machines harmonics cause additional stator and rotor losses and
reduce the output torque. The effects of voltage distortion may be considered as
insulation stress due voltage effects and thermal stress due to current flow.
Nonsinusoidal voltages applied to electric machines may cause overheating,
pulsating torques, or noise.
Losses in electric machines are dependant upon the frequency spectrum of the
applied voltage.
An increase in motor operating temperature will cause reduction of the motor
operating life. Single phase motors are the most affected.
The operating temperature of a machine closely associated with its life expectancy
because deterioration of the insulation is a function of both time and temperature.
This relation is given below.




According to Equation, the life against the temperature can be plotted and thus from
life-temperature relation a very rough idea is obtained.
One of the categories of harmonic effects of on equipment is heating effects in power
handling equipment such as motor, capacitor and transformers that, most often,
reduce equipment operating life.
At harmonic frequencies, motors can usually be represented by the blocked rotor
reactance connected across the line. The lower-order harmonic voltage components,
for which the magnitudes are larger and the apparent motor impedance lower, are
usually the most important for motors.
There is usually no need to derate motors if the voltage distortion remains within
IEEE Standard 519-1992 limits of 5 percent THD and 3 percent for any individual
harmonic. Excessive heating problems begin when the voltage distortion reaches 8 to
10 percent and higher. Such distortion should be corrected for long motor life.

Positive sequence hfth harmonic currents in the stator create a magnetic field rotating
forward at a frequency of hf fo with respect to space. Also, negative sequence hbth
harmonic stator currents produce a magnetic field rotating backward at a frequency
of hb fo in space.
These fields are pulsating, which when resolved give forward and backward
components. As such, additional harmonics are generated. Moreover, positive
(fourth, seventh, tenth, thirteenth, . . .) and negative sequence (second, fifth, eighth,
eleventh, . . .) harmonic pairs give rise to pulsating fields of frequencies 3fo, 6fo, 9fo,
12fo ,. . ., respectively. Should the natural frequency of the generator be close to one
of these frequencies, supersynchronous resonance would prevail accompanied by
torsional oscillation and bending of the turbine shaft and rotating elements.
A pulsating field is a standing field with an amplitude varying with time. Any pulsating
field can be resolved into two - rotating in opposite directions - fields, the amplitude of
each being half of the pulsating one, and which coincide in space when the pulsating
field gets its maximum value.
negative sequence currents in a generator appear as double-frequency currents in
the rotor circuit causing severe overheating, melting and damage.


6. References

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[5] S. Mark Halpin and Reuben F. Burch, Harmonic Limit Compliance Evaluations Using
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